Pudgalavada
The elder Vatsiputra established the Pudgalavada school in India during the third century BCE. This group emerged from the Sthavira Nikaya, a major branch of early Buddhism. Their influence grew significantly over time, becoming one of the most popular mainstream sects for more than a thousand years. The school reached its peak popularity under Emperor Harshavadana, who ruled between 606 and 647 CE. Harsha's sister Rajyasri joined the order as a nun, signaling high-level royal support. Dan Lusthaus describes them as a dominant force within Indian Buddhist history.
Pudgalavadins asserted that while no permanent self exists, a person called pudgala does exist. They defined this entity as neither identical to nor different from the five aggregates. This doctrine served as their method for explaining karma, rebirth, and nirvana. The Bharaharasutras provided scriptural backing for the view that the person is the bearer of these aggregates. The Kathavatthu records statements by the Buddha regarding the existence of a person who exerts effort for his own good. L.S. Cousins noted that for personalists, the relationship between the person and objects cannot be described as either same or different. The fire and fuel analogy illustrated how the aggregates act as fuel while the pudgala acts as the fire. Fire depends on fuel yet remains distinct from it, mirroring the relationship between person and aggregates.
The school utilized the concept of pudgala to account for moral retribution across lifetimes. An indestructible entity continued to exist throughout the flux of existences, serving as the base for karma accumulation. This mechanism allowed for continuity without positing an eternal soul. Dan Lusthaus argued that any theory of spiritual progress requires such a subject to make sense. Without a pudgala, there would be no one to suffer or reap consequences of actions. The Traidharmakastra text explains that lack of knowledge includes ignorance of this indefinable element. The Vatsiputriya position attempts to explain what other traditions leave unsaid about rebirth. They sought to avoid the extremes of annihilation and eternity in their explanation of transmigration.
Vibhajyavadins sharply criticized the sect's views as being too close to the concept of a self. Records of this debate appear in the Theravadan Kathavatthu attributed to Moggaliputtatissa around the third century BCE. Sarvastivadins attacked the doctrine in the Vijnanakaya while Sautrantikas used the Abhidharmakośa. Vasubandhu wrote extensively against the theory in his famous work. He argued that the pudgala is either just a label for aggregates or caused by them. If perceived directly, it implies aggregates depend on the person rather than vice versa. Candrakirti of the Madhyamaka school also joined the criticism in his Madhyamakavatara. Peter Harvey agrees with these criticisms and finds no support for the concept in Pali Nikayas. The earliest source for the doctrinal controversy remains the Puggalakatha of the Kathavatthu.
Four sub-schools branched off from the parent Vatsiputriya community between the first century BCE and first century CE. The Sammitiya became the most prominent group, especially in Sindh and Gujarat during the Maitraka dynasty. Inscriptions confirm communities existed in Mathura and Sarnath between the second and fourth centuries. By the fourth century, they replaced Sarvastivadins as the dominant school in Sarnath. King Harsha's era saw them become the largest Nikaya Buddhist school in India. Valabhi University in Gujarat served as their primary center of learning until the eighth century. Yijing visited Gujarat in 670 CE and noted the Sammitiyas had the greatest number of followers in Western India. One scholar estimates 350 out of 450 monasteries in Sindh were Sammitiya before rapid Islamization.
The school possessed a complete Tripiata including Sutras, Vinaya, and Abhidharma texts like other early schools. Only four of their original works survive today in Chinese translation. These include the San fa tu lun translated twice into Chinese. The Sammatiyanikayashastra presented arguments for various propositions regarding selfhood. The Lu erh-shih-erh ming-liao lun covers disciplinary matters within the Taisho Tripitaka. All surviving Pudgalavada texts are preserved only through these translations. The original Sanskrit canon has been lost to history. Thich Thien Chau notes that the Traidharmakastra mentions lack of knowledge regarding the indefinable pudgala. Modern scholars rely entirely on these fragmented Chinese records to reconstruct the philosophy.
Dan Lusthaus states no Buddhist school has been more vilified by peers or misunderstood by modern scholars. He argues the Vatsiputriya position is that the pudgala is a nominal existent neither identical nor different from skandhas. Bhikshu Thien Chau suggests the theory represents a reaction against depersonalization in abhidharma tradition. The creation of this doctrine tried to preserve the essence of substancelessness while acknowledging personal experience. Peter Harvey finds no support for the concept in Pali Nikayas but acknowledges its doctrinal interest. Xuanzang recorded that Saammitiya monks burned tantric scriptures and destroyed images at Bodh Gaya. An elderly Brahmin named Prajngupta composed 700 verses opposing Mahayana teachings in 700 CE. Xuanzang responded with his own work called The Destruction of Heresy containing 1600 verses.
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Common questions
Who established the Pudgalavada school in India during the third century BCE?
The elder Vatsiputra established the Pudgalavada school in India during the third century BCE. This group emerged from the Sthavira Nikaya, a major branch of early Buddhism.
What is the definition of pudgala according to Pudgalavadins?
Pudgalavadins defined this entity as neither identical to nor different from the five aggregates. They asserted that while no permanent self exists, a person called pudgala does exist.
When did Emperor Harshavadana rule and how did he support the Pudgalavada school?
Emperor Harshavadana ruled between 606 and 647 CE. His sister Rajyasri joined the order as a nun, signaling high-level royal support for the sect.
Why did Vibhajyavadins criticize the Pudgalavada doctrine around the third century BCE?
Vibhajyavadins sharply criticized the sect's views as being too close to the concept of a self. Records of this debate appear in the Theravadan Kathavatthu attributed to Moggaliputtatissa around the third century BCE.
Where was Valabhi University located and when did it serve as the primary center of learning for Sammitiya monks?
Valabhi University in Gujarat served as their primary center of learning until the eighth century. Inscriptions confirm communities existed in Mathura and Sarnath between the second and fourth centuries.
How many original Pudgalavada works survive today and where are they preserved?
Only four of their original works survive today in Chinese translation. All surviving Pudgalavada texts are preserved only through these translations since the original Sanskrit canon has been lost to history.