Poetic Edda

• 1. Origins And Composition

  ›

  The Poetic Edda exists as an untitled collection of anonymous Old Norse narrative poems written in alliterative verse. Most of these works follow the fornyrðislag meter, known as old story metre. A common variation called málaháttr appears frequently throughout the text. About a quarter of the poems utilize ljóðaháttr, or song form. The language remains clear and relatively unadorned compared to other contemporary styles. Kennings appear often but lack the complexity found in typical skaldic poetry. These verses were minstrel poems passed orally from singer to singer over centuries. No single author claims ownership of any poem within the collection. Scholars speculate that individual poets crafted specific stanzas with strong personal characteristics. Yet firm conclusions regarding specific authors have never been reached by academic consensus.

  1

• 2. Dating The Manuscripts

  ›

  Accurate dating of the poems has long remained a source of scholarly debate among historians. Lines from the Eddic poems sometimes appear in works by known poets like Eyvindr skáldaspillir. He composed Hákonarmál in the latter half of the 10th century using couplets also found in Hávamál. This overlap suggests either quoting a known poem or creating a younger derivative work. Historical characters such as Attila provide a terminus post quem for certain compositions. Linguistic dating criteria offer more certainty than circumstantial evidence alone. The particle of corresponds to ga- or ge- in other old Germanic languages. Bjarne Fidjestøl applied this criterion to Eddic poetry and found large variation indicating different ages. Some poems contain the negative adverb eigi meaning not which became r- around the year 1000 in western dialects. Olaf White Skald Thordarson observed v before r as the ancient use of vend. Old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other texts entirely. Stanzas nine through sixteen of Völuspá are considered by some scholars to be an interpolation.

  45

• 3. The Codex Regius Discovery

  ›

  The Codex Regius stands as arguably the most important extant source on Norse mythology and Germanic heroic legends. It was written during the 13th century yet remained unknown until 1643. Brynjólfur Sveinsson then Bishop of Skálholt acquired possession of the manuscript that year. Versions of the Prose Edda were known in Iceland but scholars speculated about another Elder Edda containing pagan poems. When Codex Regius appeared it seemed to prove the speculation correct though modern research suggests otherwise. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to Sæmundr the Learned a larger-than-life 12th century Icelandic priest. Modern scholars reject that attribution but the name Sæmundar Edda remains associated with both works. The bishop sent the manuscript as a present to the Danish king creating its Latin name Codex Regius. For centuries it resided in the Royal Library in Copenhagen before returning to Iceland in 1971. Air travel at the time proved untrustworthy for such precious cargo so it traveled by ship accompanied by a naval escort.

  6

• 4. Mythological Poems Catalog

  ›

  In the Codex Regius Völuspá appears first offering Wise-woman's prophecy or The Seeress's Prophecy. Hávamál follows presenting The Ballad of the High One or Sayings of the High One. Vafþrúðnismál contains The Ballad of Vafthrúdnir while Grímnismál holds The Lay of Grímnir. Skírnismál details The Ballad of Skírnir and Hárbarðsljóð offers The Poem of Hárbard. Lokasenna presents Loki's Wrangling and Þrymskviða tells The Lay of Thrym. Völundarkviða describes The Lay of Völund and Alvíssmál covers The Ballad of Alvís. Baldrs draumar appear outside the main codex listing Baldr's Dreams. Gróttasöngr includes The Mill's Song and Rígsþula features The Song of Ríg. Hyndluljóð contains The Poem of Hyndla while Svipdagsmál covers The Ballad of Svipdag. These late works often exclude from editions published after 1950. Gullkársljóð remains a poem excluded from most editions after 1900.

  35

• 5. Heroic Lays Analysis

  ›

  After mythological poems the Codex Regius continues with heroic lays about mortal heroes. These examples represent Germanic heroic legend divided into three distinct layers. The story of Helgi Hundingsbani originates from Scandinavian tradition. The Nibelung cycle stems from German origins while Jörmunrekkr king of the Goths represents Gothic roots. Attila Jörmunrekkr and Brynhildr actually existed though chronology reversed in the poems. Brynhildr may be partly based on Brunhilda of Austrasia. The Helgi Lays include Helgakviða Hundingsbana I known as The First Lay of Helgi Hundingsbane. Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar presents The Lay of Helgi the Son of Hjörvard. The Niflung Cycle begins with Frá dauða Sinfjötli describing Of Sinfjötli's Death. Grípisspá offers Grípir's Prophecy while Reginsmál tells The Ballad of Regin. Fáfnismál details The Ballad of Fáfnir and Sigrdrífumál covers The Ballad of The Victory-Bringer. Atlakviða appears as The Greenland Lay of Atli though editors generally omit that reference.

  7

• 6. Translation History Evolution

  ›

  The Elder or Poetic Edda has been translated numerous times since its discovery. A. S. Cottle published the earliest printed edition in 1797 though some short sections appeared earlier in the 1670s. Some early translators relied on a Latin translation including Cottle himself. Edward Pettit released his latest translation in 2023. Opinions differ on best methods for translating text using archaic language or rejecting it entirely. Rendering terms lacking clear English analogues remains difficult for scholars. Cottle's 1797 translation is now considered very inaccurate by modern standards. Comparing verses from Völuspá reveals stark differences between translations. Ek man jötna translates variously to I remember giants born early in time or I call to mind the kin of etins. Nine worlds appear as nine Sibyls nine giant women or nine wood-dwelling witches depending on the translator. Ymir's settlement becomes either Ymir made his dwelling or Ymir struck camp across different versions. A gaping void transforms into chaos yawned or a yawning gap throughout these renderings.

  26

• 7. Literary Legacy And Influence

  ›

  Since the early 19th century Codex Regius has influenced Scandinavian literature through visionary force and dramatic quality. Poets acknowledging their debt include Vilhelm Ekelund August Strindberg J.R.R. Tolkien Ezra Pound Jorge Luis Borges and Karin Boye. J.R.R. Tolkien utilized concepts from the Eddas in his 1937 fantasy novel The Hobbit. The Misty Mountains derive from úrig fiöll found in Skírnismál. Names of his Dwarves originate from Dvergatal within Völuspá. His Legend of Sigurd and Gudrún serves as a verse retelling composed in fornyrðislag metre. Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda makes much use of works included in the Poetic Edda though he may have had access to other compilations. No evidence exists that he used the Poetic Edda itself or even knew of it. The Völsunga saga acts as prose version of much of the Niflung cycle. Only 22 stanzas of Sigurðarkviða survive in the Codex Regius plus four quoted in the saga due to missing pages known as Great Lacuna.

  8