Peninsular War

• 1. Origins And Escalation

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  In July 1807, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte issued orders to his Foreign Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord demanding Portugal declare war on Britain. The Portuguese regent Prince John of Braganza refused to join the Continental System against British trade despite years of alliance between London and Lisbon. France sent a force known as the First Corps of Observation of the Gironde under divisional general Jean-Andoche Junot to march on Lisbon. On the 12th of October 1807, Junot's corps began crossing the Bidasoa River into Spain at Irun with support from 25,500 Spanish troops. A secret Treaty of Fontainebleau had been signed by Napoleon's marshal of the palace Géraud Duroc and Eugenio Izquierdo an agent for Manuel Godoy. This document proposed carving up Portugal into three entities including the Kingdom of Northern Lusitania and the Principality of the Algarves. By the 19th of November 1807 French troops set out for Lisbon and occupied it on the 30th of November. The Prince Regent John escaped loading his family courtiers state papers and treasure aboard a fleet protected by the British. He fled to Brazil leaving behind 14 carts loaded with treasure on the docks. In early March 1808 Murat established his headquarters in Vitoria and received 6,000 reinforcements from the Imperial Guard. On the 19th of March 1808 Godoy fell from power in the Mutiny of Aranjuez and Charles IV was forced to abdicate in favour of his son Ferdinand VII. Two kings both abdicated their claims to Napoleon under pressure at Bayonne on the 5th of May. The abdication of Ferdinand was only publicised on the 20th of May.

• 2. Guerrilla Warfare Emergence

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  Bloody spontaneous fighting known as guerrilla literally little war broke out in much of Spain against the French as well as Ancien Régime officials. The term guerrilla came from this conflict and entered the English language through these events. Juan Martín Díez known as El Empecinado became a key guerrilla leader who troubled French troops across wide areas. Many partisans were either fleeing the law or trying to get rich while others formed regular army units like Espoz y Mina's Cazadores de Navarra. The French believed resistance was the product of backwardness in knowledge social habits Catholic obscurantism superstition and counter-revolution. Once a battle was lost soldiers reverted to guerrilla roles tying down large numbers of French troops over a wide area with lower expenditure of men energy and supplies. Mass resistance by the people of Spain inspired war efforts of Austria Russia and Prussia against Napoleon. Hatred of the French and devotion to God King and Fatherland were not the only reason to join Partisans. Hunger and despair reigned on all sides because industry was at a standstill and many señores could not pay existing retainers or take on new staff. The military record was so dismal that many Spanish politicians and publicists exaggerated activities of the guerrillas. Most organized attempts by regular Spanish forces to take on the French ended in defeat.

• 3. British Intervention Strategy

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  In August 1808 fifteen thousand British troops including the King's German Legion landed in Portugal under command of Lieutenant-General Arthur Wellesley. He drove back Henri François Delaborde's four thousand strong detachment at Roliça on the 17th of August and smashed Junot's main force of fourteen thousand men at Vimeiro. Wellesley was replaced first by Harry Burrard then Hew Dalrymple who granted Junot an unmolested evacuation from Portugal by Royal Navy in controversial Convention of Cintra in August. In early October 1808 John Moore took command of thirty thousand man British force in Portugal after recall of generals Dalrymple Burrard and Wellesley. David Baird commanded expedition of reinforcements out of Falmouth consisting of one hundred fifty transports carrying between twelve thousand and thirteen thousand men convoyed by HMS Louie HMS Amelia and HMS Champion entering Corunna Harbour on the 13th of October. Napoleon struck with overwhelming strength and Spanish defense evaporated at Burgos Tudela Espinosa and Somosierra in November 1808. The Junta was forced to abandon Madrid in November 1808 residing in Alcázar of Seville from the 16th of December 1808 until the 23rd of January 1810. By November 1808 British army led by Moore advanced into Spain with orders to assist Spanish armies fight against Napoleon forces. Moore decided attack Soult scattered isolated sixteen thousand man corps at Carrión opening attack with successful raid by Lieutenant-General Paget cavalry on French picquets at Sahagún on the 21st of December. Abandoning plans immediately conquer Seville and Portugal Napoleon rapidly amassed eighty thousand troops debouching from Sierra de Guadarrama into plains of Old Castile to encircle British Army.

• 4. Lines Of Torres Vedras

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  Convinced by intelligence that new French assault on Portugal imminent Wellington created powerful defensive position near Lisbon to which he could fall back if necessary. He ordered construction of Lines of Torres Vedras three strong lines mutually supporting forts blockhouses redoubts ravelins fortified artillery positions under supervision of Richard Fletcher. Various parts lines communicated each other by semaphore allowing immediate response any threat. Work began autumn 1809 main defences finished just time one year later. Areas front lines subjected scorched earth policy denuded food forage shelter. Two hundred thousand inhabitants neighbouring districts relocated inside lines. Ney took Spanish fortified town Ciudad Rodrigo after siege lasting from the 26th of April to the 9th of July 1810. French re-invaded Portugal army around sixty five thousand led Marshal Masséna forcing Wellington back through Almeida to Busaco. At Battle of Côa French drove back Robert Crauford Light Division after which Masséna moved attack held British position heights Bussaco long ridge resulting Battle of Buçaco on the 27th of September. Suffering heavy casualties French failed dislodge Anglo-Portuguese army. Masséna outmaneuvered Wellington steadily fell back prepared positions in Lines. Wellington manned fortifications secondary troops twenty five thousand Portuguese militia eight thousand Spaniards two thousand five hundred British Royal Marines Royal Artillerymen keeping main field army British and Portuguese regulars dispersed meet French assault any point Lines. Masséna Army Portugal concentrated around Sobral preparation attack. After fierce skirmish the 14th of October strength Lines became apparent French dug themselves rather launch full-scale assault Masséna men began suffer acute shortages region.

• 5. Allied Counteroffensive

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  In early 1812 Wellington renewed allied advance into Spain besieging capturing border fortress town Ciudad Rodrigo by assault the 19th of January opening northern invasion corridor Portugal into Spain. Town stormed the 6th of April constant artillery barrage breached curtain wall three places leaving allies some four thousand eight hundred casualties. Victorious troops massacred two hundred to three hundred Spanish civilians. Allied army subsequently took Salamanca the 17th of June just Marshal Marmont approached. Two forces met the 22nd of July weeks manoeuvre when Wellington soundly defeated French at Battle Salamanca during which Marmont wounded. Battle established Wellington offensive general said he defeated army forty thousand men 40 minutes. Battle Salamanca damaging defeat French Spain while regrouped Anglo-Portuguese forces moved on Madrid surrendering the 14th of August. Twenty thousand muskets one hundred eighty cannon two French Imperial Eagles captured. King Joseph Bonaparte abandoned Madrid the 11th of August. Soult realising soon cut off supplies ordered retreat Cádiz set the 24th of August ending two-and-a-half-year-long siege. In 1813 Wellington marched one hundred twenty one thousand troops fifty three seven hundred forty nine British thirty nine six hundred eight Spanish twenty seven five hundred sixty nine Portuguese from northern Portugal across mountains northern Spain Esla River skirting Jourdan army sixty eight thousand strung Douro Tagus. At Battle Vitoria the 21st of June Joseph sixty five thousand man army defeated decisively Wellington army fifty seven thousand British sixteen thousand Portuguese eight thousand Spanish. Wellington split army four attacking columns attacked French defensive position south west north last column cut down across French rear. French forced back prepared positions despite attempts regroup hold driven rout leading abandonment all French artillery King Joseph extensive baggage train personal belongings.

• 6. Political Consequences

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  Years fighting Spain heavy burden France Imperial Army communications supplies severely tested units frequently isolated harassed overwhelmed Spanish partisans fighting intense guerrilla war raids ambushes. Drain French resources led Napoleon unwittingly provoked total war call conflict Spanish ulcer. War against Napoleon occupation led Spanish Constitution 1812 promulgated Cortes Cádiz later cornerstone European liberalism. Though victorious war France would never again threaten full-scale invasion Spain burden war destroyed social economic fabric both Portugal and Spain following civil wars liberal absolutist factions ushered revolts Spanish America beginning era social turbulence increased political instability economic stagnation. In 1809 Junta Central announced cortes open the 1st of March 1810 suffrage extended all male householders over twenty five. Representatives district-level assemblies choose deputies send provincial meetings bodies members cortes emerge. From the 1st of February 1810 implementation decrees hands new regency council selected Junta Central. Viceroyalties independent captaincies general overseas territories each send one representative scheme resented Americas providing unequal representation overseas territories. Unrest erupted Quito Charcas seeing themselves capitals kingdoms resent subsumed larger kingdom Peru. Revolts suppressed Luz de América Bolivian War Independence. Throughout early 1809 governments capitals viceroyalties captaincies general elected representatives Junta none arrived time serve.