Oswald Mosley
Oswald Mosley stood before a reported 30,000 people at the Earls Court Exhibition Hall in London on the 16th of July 1939. The event was called the "Britain First" rally. It remains the biggest indoor political rally in British history.
The man at the center of it was a baronet's son. He had sat as a Conservative, then as an independent, then as a Labour minister. He now led Britain's fascists. Within a year he would be locked up without trial.
How did a young war veteran who wanted to prevent any future war end up admiring Mussolini and Hitler? Why did economists and politicians of the left once take his ideas seriously? And what became of him after the cheering stopped?
Mosley was born at 47 Hill Street in Mayfair, London, on the 16th of November 1896. His mother, Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote, recorded in her diary that labour lasted 18 hours. The baby arrived at 11:40pm, after the family doctor, Sir John Williams, gave her chloroform. Her husband, Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet, wrote letters to relatives about the event and celebrated at the Epsom Derby.
The family traced its line to Ernald de Mosley, a lord of the manor in Staffordshire in the reign of King John. A later ancestor, Nicholas Mosley, grew wealthy and became Lord Mayor of London. The family seat was Rolleston Hall, near Burton upon Trent. Young Oswald's grandfather, the 4th Baronet, had campaigned against Jewish emancipation. The biographer Stephen Dorril suggests that the servants at Rolleston, who could never rise, shaped Mosley's later view of how people should be ordered.
His father was nicknamed "Waldie". He was an amateur boxer, a gambler and a drinker, and he was often absent. In 1901, when Oswald was five, his mother found letters showing her husband made his lovers the same promises he had made to her. The couple split while she was pregnant with their third child.
Katharine moved to Betton Hall near Market Drayton, living on a small alimony. Her eldest son adored her. Decades later, in the 1970s, he burned her diaries so that investigative authors could not use them against her. He kept only the entries covering the first four years of his own life. Meanwhile his grandfather treated him as a substitute for the son he disliked, and became the model for Mosley's idea of masculinity.
At Winchester College, which he entered in 1909 at 12, a year early, Mosley found lessons hard and dull and made few friends. He shot 50 partridges, 18 pheasants, 11 rabbits and 10 hares over a single winter. He won a light-weight boxing championship at 15, but his headmaster forbade him from entering the Public Schools' championship. So he took up fencing. He became the first boy to win both foil and sabre titles at that championship, and the youngest to win either.
In January 1914 he entered the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, which he later called one of the happiest times of his life. In June he was expelled for a riotous act of revenge against another cadet. The soldier and writer John Masters claimed other cadets threw him out of a window. Dorril says he simply slipped and fell.
When the First World War came, Mosley was commissioned into the 16th The Queen's Lancers and fought in France on the Western Front. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps. While demonstrating a flight in front of his mother and sister, he crashed. The accident left him with a permanent limp and a name for reckless bravery. After returning briefly to the Lancers he was invalided out. He spent the rest of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and the Foreign Office.
On the 11th of May 1920 he married Lady Cynthia "Cimmie" Curzon, second daughter of Lord Curzon, the Foreign Secretary and former Viceroy of India. Curzon suspected that the groom was chasing both his daughter's inheritance and a career in Conservative politics. The wedding at the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace was still a grand affair. King George V and Queen Mary were among hundreds of guests.
The marriage did not stop Mosley's affairs. He carried on a long affair with Cynthia's younger sister, Lady Alexandra Metcalfe, and another with their stepmother, Grace. In 1928 his father died and he became the 6th Baronet. That same year Rolleston Hall, the ancestral home, was demolished.
On the 23rd of July 1918, Mosley competed against three other men for the Conservative nomination at Harrow. His 15-minute speech fell flat. Yet the way he answered questions won over all 43 delegates. At 21 he had no university degree and no career, because the war had interrupted both. He wanted a seat in Parliament, and he spoke of a passionate conviction that Britain must never fight another war.
F. E. Smith, the Earl of Birkenhead, had encouraged him to enter politics. Local associations in several constituencies courted him because of his family name and war record. He considered Stone in Staffordshire but chose Harrow, partly because it was nearer London. He said he wanted a seat won on his own merits.
His opponent at the general election was A. R. Chamberlayne, an elderly solicitor who called him too young and a creature of the party machine. Mosley answered by listing Pitt the Younger, Fox, Gladstone, Palmerston and Salisbury, all of whom entered Parliament in their youth. He chose red as his campaign colour in place of the usual Conservative blue. He won by a majority of nearly 11,000.
Only Joseph Sweeney, a Sinn Féin member who refused to take his seat, was seven months younger. So Mosley became the youngest member to sit in the Commons. He made a point of speaking without notes. He also became an early supporter of the economist John Maynard Keynes. His own programme, which he called "socialistic imperialism", pushed for better wages and hours, slum clearance and nationalised electricity and transport. It also wanted more spending on education and health.
Ireland broke his bond with the Conservatives. He became secretary of the Peace with Ireland Council. He condemned the Black and Tans, the force attacking civilians during the Irish War of Independence. In November 1920 he questioned the Chief Secretary for Ireland in the Commons about Eileen Quinn, a young pregnant mother shot dead in County Galway. His complaint was partly about empire. He argued that such conduct undermined the standing of British rule. Around the same time he proposed treating Ireland much as the United States treated Cuba.
In late 1920 he crossed the floor to sit as an independent on the opposition side. He held Harrow against Conservative challengers in 1922 and 1923. The Liberal Westminster Gazette wrote that he was "the most polished literary speaker in the Commons" and had "human sympathies, courage and brains".
On the 27th of March 1924, Mosley applied to join the Labour Party, shortly after it formed its first government. He then joined the Independent Labour Party. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald believed aristocrats gave Labour respectability. The Manchester Guardian congratulated him on "the fine new recruit he has secured."
When that government fell in October, Mosley doubted Harrow would re-elect him as a Labour man. He chose to challenge Neville Chamberlain in Birmingham Ladywood. He called Chamberlain a "landlords' hireling" over the Rent Act of 1923. Chamberlain demanded a retraction "as a gentleman". Mosley refused, and Stanley Baldwin called him "a cad and a wrong 'un".
Leslie Hore-Belisha, then a Liberal, left a portrait of the young orator. He saw "Dark, aquiline, flashing: tall, thin, assured; defiance in his eye, contempt in his forward chin." Mosley and Cynthia made a glamorous pair. The historian Martin Pugh noted that working-class voters in Birmingham liked a link to powerful, wealthy people. After several recounts Chamberlain won by 77 votes. Mosley blamed the weather. While out of Parliament he helped develop a new economic policy for the party, known as the Birmingham Proposals. It would underpin his economics for the rest of his career.
That winter he and Cynthia travelled to British India, where her father's past as Viceroy opened many doors. They landed in Ceylon, then visited Madras and Calcutta, where they met Lord Lytton, the governor. Along the way Mosley met Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru. Through the clergyman Charles Freer Andrews he met Gandhi at Kadda. Mosley later called him a "sympathetic personality of subtle intelligence".
A Labour seat opened when John Davison resigned in Smethwick, and Mosley won the by-election on the 21st of December 1926. His majority was 6,582 over the Conservative M. J. Pike. The Daily Mail mocked "Mr. Silver Spoon Mosley" for preaching socialism in a twenty-guinea Savile Row suit. Critics called him a "champagne socialist" who had never done a day's work. He replied that abuse from the capitalist press proved he was helping Labour.
In 1927 he dismissed the British Fascists as "black-shirted buffoons, making a cheap imitation of ice-cream sellers".
When Labour won the 1929 general election, Mosley hoped for one of the Great Offices of State. Instead he became Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, a post without a department. His task was to solve unemployment. His radical proposals were blocked either by the Lord Privy Seal, James Henry Thomas, or by the Cabinet.
So he wrote what became known as the Mosley Memorandum. It called for high tariffs to shield British industry and turn the Empire into a self-sufficient trading bloc. It proposed nationalising major industries, raising the school-leaving age and pensions to shrink the labour surplus, and a programme of public works. It also sketched a corporate state that would join business, workers and government in one body and end class conflict.
The Cabinet and the Parliamentary Labour Party rejected it. In May 1930 Mosley resigned. The Nation and Athenaeum called the resignation an event of capital importance and praised his courage in refusing to share responsibility for "inertia". In October he took the memorandum to the Labour Party Conference and lost again. From July 1930 he demanded that government be turned from a "talk-shop" into a "workshop".
Keynes called it "a very able document and illuminating". He said he liked its spirit and wondered how anyone calling himself a socialist could keep away from it. In 1961 Richard Crossman judged that the memorandum had been "a whole generation ahead of Labour thinking." Mosley's later book The Greater Britain warned that buying cheap goods from abroad could wreck domestic industry and bring mass unemployment, as in the 1930s.
The ideas outlived the man. In 1992 Prime Minister John Major examined Mosley's thinking while looking for an unorthodox answer to the aftermath of the 1990-91 recession.
Mosley left Labour with six other MPs to found the New Party, though two of them resigned after one day. At the 1931 Ashton-under-Lyne by-election, its candidate may have split the left-wing vote and handed the seat to the Conservatives. Still, Aneurin Bevan and the future prime minister Harold Macmillan were among those who liked his corporatist economics. The historian Robert Skidelsky wrote that "Keynesianism was his great contribution to fascism."
The Manchester Guardian reported that after a speech at the Free Trade Hall the audience rose and swept a storm of applause toward the platform. Yet the 1931 general election was called suddenly, and every New Party candidate lost, including Mosley in Stoke.
According to Harold Nicolson, editor of the party's newspaper Action, Mosley decided on the 21st of September 1931 to pursue a "trained and disciplined force". That followed a disturbance at a Communist-organised meeting of 20,000 people in Glasgow Green. Mainstream parties kept courting him anyway. Roughly four weeks before the election, Neville Chamberlain proposed an alliance with the National Government. Through early 1932 the Conservative chief whip, David Margesson, tried to bring him back. Winston Churchill reportedly promised to support him in a by-election, and Lord Rothermere, owner of the Daily Mail, approached him as well. Mosley refused to return to the "machine" of the old parties, and dissolved the New Party in April 1932.
He toured the "new movements" of Mussolini's Italy and came home convinced. He launched the British Union of Fascists that year. The historian Matthew Worley points to three causes. Mosley read the Great Slump as proof that British capitalism needed rebuilding. His time as a minister left him resentful of parliamentary gridlock. And he concluded Labour could not deliver radical change. Worley quotes Mosley picturing two futures. One was a slow decline to the "level of a Spain". The other was a crisis opening the way for a "constructive alternative". Mosley also believed Britain faced a Communist revolution that only fascism could stop.
The BUF was protectionist, anti-communist and nationalist to the point of authoritarianism. It claimed as many as 50,000 members. Rothermere wrote a guest article for the Daily Mirror praising the BUF. The paper itself condemned European fascism so fiercely that Nazi Germany put its directors on a hit list for a successful Operation Sea Lion. The Mail kept its support until June 1934. Early supporters included the novelist Henry Williamson, the military theorist J. F. C. Fuller and William Joyce, who would later be known as "Lord Haw Haw".
After New Party meetings were repeatedly disrupted, Mosley built a corps of black-uniformed stewards called the Fascist Defence Force. They were nicknamed "Blackshirts", in imitation of Mussolini's militia. They fought often with communists and Jewish groups, especially in London.
At a large rally at Olympia on the 7th of June 1934, his bodyguards' violence caused bad publicity. Together with the Night of the Long Knives in Germany, it cost the BUF most of its mass support. Mosley kept up his antisemitism regardless. In Leicester in April 1935 he said, "For the first time I openly and publicly challenge the Jewish interests of this country."
In October 1936 the BUF tried to march through a part of East London with many Jewish residents. Protesters tried to block the route, police tried to force it through, and the clash became known as the Battle of Cable Street. Police commissioner Sir Philip Game stopped the march, and the BUF abandoned it. Parliament responded with the Public Order Act 1936, which took effect on the 1st of January 1937 and banned political uniforms. Later in 1937 the BUF stood in three East London wards at the London County Council elections. It won up to a quarter of the vote. Mosley then laid off most of his paid Blackshirts, and some, including Joyce, left. In October 1937 he gave a fascist salute from a van in Walton, Liverpool, to 8,000 people. Two stones thrown from the crowd knocked him unconscious.
His private life had changed too. Cynthia died in 1933 at the age of 34, after an operation for peritonitis following appendicitis. Mosley then married his mistress Diana Guinness, née Mitford. They wed in secret on the 6th of October 1936 in Berlin, at the home of the propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was the guest of honour.
Mosley spent much of his private fortune on the BUF. Through Diana he tried to negotiate with Hitler for permission to broadcast commercial radio to Britain from Germany. In 1937 he reportedly agreed a deal with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneurage of Sark, for a privately owned station there.
As war approached, the BUF launched campaigns under the slogan "Mind Britain's Business". In 1939 MI5 uncovered a conspiracy organised by Archibald Maule Ramsay and the Right Club, known as the Kensington Conspiracy. The plan was for a coup after a German invasion of Britain. Evidence suggests Mosley soon distanced himself, finding the group too extreme.
Mosley never knew how closely MI5 and Special Branch watched him. They had deeply penetrated the BUF and used listening devices. The American journalist John Gunther wrote in 1940 that Mosley was "strikingly handsome" and "probably the best orator in England". Authorities were tolerant until the Battle of France in May 1940. Mosley was then pleading for Britain to accept Hitler's peace offer of October 1939.
He was detained on the 23rd of May 1940, less than a fortnight after Winston Churchill became prime minister. Lord Birkett questioned him for 16 hours. Mosley was never charged with a crime and was held under Defence Regulation 18B. Diana was interned in June, shortly after the birth of their son Max. The couple lived together for most of the war in a house in the grounds of Holloway prison. That same year the BUF was banned. In confinement Mosley read the classics and formed a lifelong friendship with Cahir Healy, a Catholic Irish nationalist MP.
In November 1943 the Home Secretary, Herbert Morrison, ordered the Mosleys' release. The Commons upheld the decision by 327 votes to 26. Mosley, suffering from phlebitis, spent the rest of the war under house arrest. In November 1945 he was summoned to court on a charge of causing unnecessary suffering to pigs on his Wiltshire farm. He conducted his own defence, and the charge was dismissed after five hours.
In 1948 he formed the Union Movement, which called for the continent to become a single nation under the banner of "Europe a Nation". Its meetings were disrupted by the same opponents as before the war. In 1951 he left Britain for Ireland. Of critics who said he had abandoned his followers, he replied, "You don't clear up a dungheap from underneath it." He also became a pioneer of Holocaust denial, claiming that the camps held a disaffected population and that Hitler knew nothing of the killing.
After the 1958 Notting Hill race riots, he returned to contest Kensington North in 1959 on a platform of forced repatriation of Caribbean immigrants. He won only 8.1% of the vote and moved to Orsay, near Paris. In 1966 he made one last attempt at Shoreditch and Finsbury and received 4.6%. His autobiography, My Life, appeared in 1968. He also told The Times, "I am not, and never have been, a man of the right." In 1977, standing for Rector of the University of Glasgow, he polled over 100 votes and finished last.
Mosley died at Orsay on the 3rd of December 1980. His cremation took place at Père Lachaise Cemetery, and his ashes were scattered on the pond at Orsay. His son Alexander said the family had received no abusive messages, because "All that was a very long time ago." The satirical programme Not the Nine O'Clock News mocked the glowing newspaper obituaries in a punk song. In 2006 BBC History magazine named him the 20th century's worst Briton. Since 2022 his grandson Louis Mosley has headed the UK division of the American technology firm Palantir.
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Common questions
Who was Oswald Mosley?
He was a British politician who served as an MP for Harrow and Smethwick, held a ministerial post in the Labour government, and then founded the British Union of Fascists in 1932. He led it until it was banned in 1940.
What was the Mosley Memorandum?
It was a plan he wrote in 1930 to tackle unemployment through tariffs, nationalisation, public works and a corporate state. The Cabinet rejected it and Mosley resigned in May 1930, though Keynes praised it.
What happened at the Battle of Cable Street?
In October 1936 the BUF tried to march through a heavily Jewish area of East London. Anti-fascist protesters tried to block the route, and police commissioner Sir Philip Game stopped the march.
Why was Mosley interned during the Second World War?
He was detained on the 23rd of May 1940 under Defence Regulation 18B after the Battle of France made the government consider him too dangerous. He was never charged and was released in November 1943.
Who were Mosley's wives?
His first wife was Lady Cynthia Curzon, who died in 1933. In 1936 he secretly married Diana Mitford in Berlin at the home of Joseph Goebbels, with Hitler as guest of honour.
How did Mosley's political career end?
After leaving Britain, he lost heavily in the 1959 and 1966 elections, getting 8.1% and 4.6%. He retired to France and died at Orsay on the 3rd of December 1980.
All sources
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