Olive
The olive, a subtropical evergreen tree that botanists call Olea europaea, once led the writer Georges Duhamel to remark that the "Mediterranean ends where the olive tree no longer grows." That is a large claim for a short, squat tree whose fruit is far too bitter to eat straight from the branch. Yet the claim carries weight. People pressed this fruit for food, cosmetics, soap, lubrication and medicine, and they carved its wood into construction timber. Its branches and leaves turned up at the ancient Olympic games, at funerals, and at the coronation of Israelite kings. How did a bitter fruit become the foundation of whole civilisations? How old can one of these trees really get, and what does the evidence say about the boldest claims? And how did a plant from the eastern Mediterranean end up growing on far-flung continents?
An olive tree rarely climbs beyond 8-15 metres, and its trunk is typically gnarled and twisted. The oblong leaves are silvery green, 4-10 cm long and 1-3 cm wide. One variety breaks the pattern. Pisciottana comprises about 40,000 trees found only around Pisciotta in the Campania region of southern Italy, and many of them grow taller than usual, with correspondingly thick trunks.
Four yellowish white petals, fused at the base, make up each small flower. The buds swell for four to six weeks until they reach about 2 cm, then open. In hot weather the blooming takes only 5-6 days, while in colder areas it can take two weeks. The fruit that follows is a drupe, 1-2.5 cm long when ripe. Its hard core is a stone to British speakers and a pit to Americans.
Six natural subspecies spread across a wide range, from Madeira and the Canary Islands to Morocco, Algeria, Sudan and Niger. Another stretches from South Africa through East Africa and Arabia to Southwest China. Two carry extra sets of chromosomes: the Madeira form is tetraploid and the Moroccan form is hexaploid. The olive also gives its name to a family, Oleaceae, which includes lilac, jasmine, forsythia and ash. Meanwhile the "white" and "black" olives of Southeast Asia are not olives at all but species of Canarium.
Pollination takes planning. Many cultivars are self-sterile or nearly so, so growers plant a main cultivar beside a second one chosen to fertilise it. 'Pendolino' is only partly self-fertile, and groves often rely on 'Leccino' or 'Maurino' to supply pollen for a large crop.
The tree's toughness is easiest to see after a disaster. In Tuscany in 1985, a very severe frost destroyed many productive and aged trees and ruined many farmers' livelihoods. By spring, new shoots had appeared from the surviving rootstock. Once the dead wood was cut away, those shoots became the basis of new fruit-bearing trees.
Still, the olive has enemies. The olive fruit fly lays its eggs in the fruit just before autumn ripening, and the punctured region rots and turns bitter. In Apulia, southern Italy, the bacterium Xylella fastidiosa has caused olive quick decline syndrome, carried by the meadow spittlebug. Rabbits can kill a tree by stripping bark all the way around the trunk.
The olive can also become the villain. In South Australia, foxes and birds including the emu spread its seeds into woodland, where dense feral olive canopies block native trees from regenerating and the oil-rich foliage raises the fire hazard.
The oldest written Greek forms of the word olive are Mycenaean, spelled e-ra-wa and e-ra-wo in the Linear B script. Classical Greek had elaía for the fruit and tree, and élaion for the oil. Latin ŏlīva may have come through Etruscan from an archaic Greek form. English oil descends from the same source, because oil once meant olive oil, and the word for oil in several other languages traces back to this tree.
Long before any writing, the tree was already ancient. Fossil evidence places its origins 20-40 million years ago, in what is now Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. On the volcanic Greek island of Santorini, fossilised Olea leaves from about 37,000 years ago carry the imprints of olive whitefly larvae. The same insect still infests olive leaves today. Other Santorini leaves date back 60,000 years and are the oldest known Mediterranean olives.
Human use started early too. About 100,000 years ago, people on Morocco's Atlantic coast burned olives for fuel and most likely ate them. In the Eastern Mediterranean, wild trees called oleasters have been gathered since roughly 19,000 years ago, and the genome of cultivated olives points back to oleaster populations in that region.
The earliest evidence of true domestication comes from Teleilat el Ghassul, a Chalcolithic site in modern Jordan. Cultivation began between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago, most likely in the Levant, according to findings in ancient tombs that include written tablets, olive stones and olive wood, along with genetic analysis. Hittite texts from the second millennium BC describe anointing a newborn child and its mother with olive oil as protection against the dangers of childbirth.
For thousands of years the natural fruit was too bitter for the table, so olives were grown mainly for lamp oil. The earliest olive oil production dates back some 6,500 years, in coastal Canaan, and the first mechanised farm tools were very likely built for making it. By 3000 BC, Crete grew olives commercially, and they may have been the chief source of wealth for the Minoan civilisation.
In the 16th century BC, the Phoenicians began carrying olives out of their Levantine homeland. As dominant traders and sailors, they planted the tree on the Greek isles, then brought it to the Greek mainland between the 14th and 12th centuries BC. The Athenian statesman Solon, around 630 BC, issued decrees regulating olive planting and encouraging its cultivation for export. Hippocrates, Homer and Theophrastus all observed its benefits.
Egypt left some of the most vivid traces. The earliest evidence of the olive tree there goes back to the Eighteenth Dynasty. Ramses III promoted olive growing and offered oil from Heliopolis to the sun god Ra. Tutankhamun wore a garland of olive branches that came from Dakhla Oasis, 360 km to the east. Mummies from the 20th to 25th dynasties have been found wearing olive wreaths. Earlier, wall scenes in the tomb of King Teti show olive fruit and trees, though it is unclear whether they reflect local cultivation.
Mesopotamia never grew olives, as far as anyone can show, but it wanted them. Olive wood appears there as early as the mid third millennium BC, and the Syrian site of Emar holds olive wood and stones from the Middle Bronze Age. The Code of Hammurabi refers repeatedly to olive oil as a key commodity. The Assyrian Empire may have pushed into the southern Levant partly to control its lucrative oil production.
Rome carried the olive furthest. Phoenicians had introduced olive growing to Spain by about 1050 BC, but it stayed small until the arrival of Scipio in 212 BC during the Second Punic War. After the Third Punic War, olives filled a large stretch of the Baetica valley in southwest Spain, which by the second century AD supplied more olives and oil than any other region of the empire. Rome also spread the tree to assimilate local populations. Marseille received olives around 600 BC, and from there they reached the whole of Gaul. In North Africa, the Romans met Berbers who already knew how to graft wild olives.
The emperor Hadrian, who reigned from 117 to 138 AD, went so far as to exempt olive growers from paying rent on their land for ten years. The reward for such policies is visible in what followed. Olive planting and oil production fell sharply after the western empire collapsed.
A revival came in the early eighth century AD, when Muslim Arabs and North Africans conquered Iberia and brought their own olive varieties. Their influence survives in language. Spanish aceituna, aceite and acebuche, and Portuguese azeitona and azeite, all have Arabic roots. By the 12th century, an article on olive growing in Spain appeared in Ibn al-'Awwam's Book on Agriculture.
In 1560, Antonio de Rivera planted the first seedlings from Spain in Lima. From there, olive growing ran quickly along the valleys of South America's dry Pacific coast, where the climate resembles the Mediterranean, and it prospered in present-day Peru, Chile, Uruguay and Argentina.
California came later and more fitfully. Spanish missionaries established the olive there between 1769 and 1795, starting at Mission San Diego de Alcalá. Other missions started orchards, yet by 1838 only two were confirmed. Growing olives for oil became a highly successful business from the 1860s onward. Today California produces 95 percent of the olives grown in the United States, and as of 2021 about 35,000 of the country's roughly 36,000 olive acres lie there.
In Japan, olives took root on Shodo Island in the Seto Inland Sea in 1908. The island's mild climate suited them, and it now accounts for over 95 percent of the country's production, which has earned it the nickname "Olive Island." Its mascot and tourist merchandise are olive themed.
Pakistan has treated olives as a national priority since 2010. Under the Ten Billion Tree Tsunami Project, launched in 2019, the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provincial government planted thousands of olives in a war-torn region as a symbol of peace and a source of income. By January 2025, the country had 5.6 million cultivated olive trees, with 500,000 to 800,000 more planted each year, alongside about 80 million wild ones.
India's experiment ran hotter and shorter. Saplings imported from Israel were planted in Rajasthan's Thar Desert in 2008, and commercial oil production began in 2016 under a state-funded agency. Farms kept expanding into 2020. By 2023, however, size and output had fallen steeply because of the difficult climate and fading government interest.
As of 2024-58 countries maintain commercial olive groves, covering roughly 11.6 million hectares, a quarter of the world's permanent cultivated area. Spain leads, with more than 180 million trees on over 2.5 million hectares, followed by Tunisia and Italy. Output in the Mediterranean has declined since 2019, though, and the balance is shifting. A 2025 report found that non-EU producers made 40 percent of global olive oil in 2024/2025, up from below 33 percent in 2021/2022. Newer growers include El Salvador, Ethiopia, Kuwait, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and North Macedonia. Amid climate warming, small farms have even appeared at high latitudes in the United Kingdom, Germany and Canada.
Oleuropein is the compound that makes a fresh olive nearly inedible, and it can reach 14 percent of dry matter in young fruit. Curing and fermenting remove it. A few olives skip the work entirely. The throubes black olive of Thasos becomes edible when it ripens in the sun, shrivels and drops from the tree.
The Spanish or Sevillian method treats green olives with dilute lye at 2-4 percent for 8-10 hours, until the lye has soaked about two-thirds of the way into the fruit. The olives are then washed and moved into brine at 8-12 percent salt. Natural bacteria and yeasts ferment them, and lactic acid bacteria lower the acidity of the brine, which preserves the fruit so it can be stored without refrigeration. Around 60 percent of the world's table olives are made this way.
Other traditions find their own routes. The Sicilian or Greek method skips the lye and puts olives straight into brine that is changed regularly. Water-cured olives are soaked for 10-14 days with daily changes of water or weak brine, and some are lightly cracked to hasten the process. Salt-cured olives, made from ripe fruit mainly in Morocco, Turkey and other eastern Mediterranean countries, are packed in layers of salt until they shrivel like raisins. Oil-cured olives start the same way and are then soaked in oil.
The California method uses no fermentation at all. Green or semi-ripe olives are soaked in lye and washed in water injected with compressed air, again and again. The air oxidises the flesh and turns it black, which imitates natural ripening. These are the mild, soft black olives sold in cans.
Harvest begins in the Northern Hemisphere from the end of September, when green olives are picked until about the middle of November. Most are now shaken from the boughs or the whole tree. Milking the olives from a ladder into a sack yields high quality oil. In mountainous parts of Italy, Croatia and Greece, hand picking keeps the fruit unbruised. A large tree gives about 400 pounds of olives a year, and the flesh is usually 60-70 percent oil.
About 80 percent of all harvested olives become oil. Extra virgin olive oil must have no more than 0.8 percent free acidity, and Greece has the highest consumption per person, followed by Italy and Spain. The hard, close-grained wood is prized for bowls, cutting boards and furniture. The Roman writer Vitruvius described charred olive wood tying walls and foundations together. Even the leftovers find work: Spain produces about 400,000 tons of olive stones a year, mostly burned as biomass. One caution applies to the trees themselves. Their pollen is extremely allergenic, rated 10 out of 10 on the OPALS scale, and the 'Swan Hill' variety sold as allergy-free still produces it.
A 2013 study found wide disparities among laboratories that tree-ring dated the same olive specimens. The trouble is the tree itself, whose irregular growth can mean missing rings, hollowed interiors and multiple trunks. Combining tree-ring and radiocarbon dating, researchers have put maximum ages between 300 and 500 years, with some finding that most of the oldest trees reach about 700. Against that cautious range stand some astonishing claims.
In Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, the tree Oliveira do Mouchão is estimated at 3,350 years old, planted around the beginning of the Atlantic Bronze Age. The olive tree of Vouves in Crete is estimated at between 2,000 and 4,000 years. On Brijuni in Croatia, a tree with a radiocarbon age of about 1,600 years still yields roughly 30 kg of fruit a year, which is made into oil. In Ulldecona, Catalonia, laser measurements suggest that the Farga d'Arió dates to 314 AD, when Constantine the Great was Roman emperor.
One famous tree has a violent recent history. West of Athens stood Plato's Olive Tree, thought to be a remnant of the grove of Plato's Academy and about 2,400 years old. In 1975, a traffic accident in which a bus uprooted it ended its life as a living tree. Its trunk was preserved and is displayed at the nearby Agricultural University of Athens.
The trees of Gethsemane in Jerusalem, whose name comes from Hebrew words for an olive press, are often said to date to the time of Jesus. In 2012, Italy's National Research Council carbon dated three of eight trees and got dates of 1092-1166 and 1198 AD. DNA showed they were all planted from one parent plant. All the trunks are hollow, so the oldest wood is missing, and the study could not date the other five. Tour guides still often say the trees are two thousand years old.
Some claims fared worse under scrutiny. The village of Bcheale in Lebanon says its oldest trees go back to 4000 BC, but no scientific study supports that. Research published in 2024 found at least one tree over 1,100 years old, with most others around 500. Trees in Amioun appear to be at least 1,500 years old.
Some ages are firmly established. The Bidni olive trees on Malta are about 2,000 years old, confirmed by carbon dating, and have been protected since 1933. Only 20 trees remain from 40 at the start of the 20th century, and in 2011 the grove at Bidnija became a Tree Protected Area. In Jordan, the Al-Mihras trees, some over 1,000 years old, carry a lineage that genomic sequencing suggests may be an ancestor of modern European varieties such as Frantoio and Manzanilla. UNESCO recognised them in 2024.
The coins of Athens bore an olive because the tree was sacred to the city and to its patron deity, Athena. Roman myth credited Hercules with bringing the tree to Italy from North Africa and the goddess Minerva with teaching how to grow it and press its oil. The archaeologist Colin Renfrew counted olives, along with grain and grapes, as part of a Mediterranean triad of staple crops that fuelled more complex societies.
In the Hebrew Bible, a dove returned to Noah with an olive branch to show that the flood was over. Deuteronomy describes the Promised Land as a place of olive groves and lists olives among seven species special to the Land of Israel. Two olive branches appear in Israel's emblem, and a survey in 2021 named the tree the country's unofficial national tree.
Christianity places a central scene in an olive garden, Gethsemane, at the foot of the Mount of Olives, where Jesus prayed in agony before he was betrayed and arrested. Various Christian churches use olive oil in consecration ceremonies and certain sacraments. The Quran mentions the olive tree and its oil seven times, and olive leaves serve as incense in some Muslim Mediterranean countries.
For Palestinians, the tree stands for resilience, ancestry and community, and for the bond between people and land. It is the main income for over 800,000 families and makes up 14 percent of the Palestinian economy. About 10 million olive trees cover almost half the cultivated land in the West Bank. That importance has put the tree at the centre of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, and an estimated 800,000 olive trees have been uprooted by Israeli authorities and settlers since 1967.
Political symbolism reaches across the Atlantic as well. Early in the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress sent Great Britain the "Olive Branch Petition" to prevent escalation. The Great Seal of the United States, first used in 1782, shows an eagle gripping an olive branch and arrows, with its gaze turned toward the olive branch. Thomas Jefferson, an admirer of olives and olive oil, called the tree "the richest gift of heaven."
The flag of the United Nations, adopted in 1946, places a map of the world between two olive branches.
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Common questions
Where did the olive originate?
The olive originated in Asia Minor and the Mediterranean region, and domestication most likely began in the Levant between 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. The earliest evidence of domestication comes from the Chalcolithic site of Teleilat el Ghassul in modern Jordan.
How old is the oldest olive tree in the world?
One of the oldest known living olive trees is Oliveira do Mouchão in Mouriscas, Abrantes, Portugal, with an estimated age of 3,350 years. Dating olives is difficult because of missing tree rings and hollow trunks, so many age claims remain estimates.
Why are fresh olives bitter and how are they made edible?
Fresh olives are bitter because of oleuropein, which can reach 14 percent of dry matter in young fruit. Curing and fermentation with lye, brine, water or salt remove it.
Which countries produce the most olives?
Spain leads the world, with more than 180 million olive trees on over 2.5 million hectares, followed by Tunisia and Italy. As of 2024-58 countries maintain commercial olive groves.
What percentage of harvested olives become olive oil?
About 80 percent of all harvested olives are turned into oil, and about 20 percent are used as table olives. The flesh of the fruit is usually 60-70 percent oil.
Why is the olive branch a symbol of peace?
Ancient Greeks regarded the olive tree as sacred and a symbol of peace, prosperity and wisdom. The olive branch appears in the story of Noah and the dove, in the Olive Branch Petition of the Second Continental Congress, on the Great Seal of the United States, and on the United Nations flag adopted in 1946.
How did the olive spread across the Mediterranean?
Phoenician traders began spreading the olive in the 16th century BC, taking it to the Greek isles and then the Greek mainland. Rome carried it across the empire, and Muslim Arabs and North Africans reinvigorated Iberian olive growing in the early eighth century AD.
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