Sunni Islam
The Arabic word sunna, which means the right path that has always been followed, dates back to pre-Islamic language. It gained political significance after the murder of the third caliph Uthman in 656 CE. During the Battle of Siffin, a follower named Malik al-Ashtar encouraged resistance against Muawiya by stating that he killed the sunnah. This phrase later became a rallying cry for those who wanted to resolve conflicts through consultation rather than division. The scholar Masrūq ibn al-Adschda died in 683 and was a mufti in Kufa who emphasized loving the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar. His disciple ash-Sha'bi turned away from Shia fanaticism and joined the Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik. He popularized the concept of Sunnah as a unifying force against divisive sects. By the second Civil War between 680 and 692, the term received connotations critical of Shi'i doctrines. A Basric scholar named Muhammad Ibn Siri died in 728 and noted that when fitna started, people began asking for informants to verify hadith. If they were Sunnah people, their reports were accepted; if not, they were rejected. The Hanafite Abū l-Qāsim as-Samarqandi died in 953 and used expressions like ahl al-'adl wa-ahl as-sunna interchangeably. In the 9th century, one started to extend the term with further positive additions. Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari used phrases such as ahl as-sunna wa-l-istiqama meaning people of Sunna and Straightness. The expression ahl as-sunna wa l-Jamā'ah appeared clearly during the Mihna edict under Abbasite Caliph Al-Ma'mun who reigned from 813 to 833. He criticized groups claiming to be the people of truth religion and community. Harb ibn Ismail as-Sirjdshani died in 893 and created a writing titled as-Sunna wa l-Jamā'ah which was later refuted by Mutazilite Abu al-Qasim al-Balchi. The Hanbalis were likely the first to use this phrase as a self-designation.
Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari lived between 873 and 935 and founded a theological school that stressed divine revelation over human reason. They rejected the Mu'tazili position that all Quranic references to God having real attributes were metaphorical. Instead they insisted these attributes were as they best befitted His Majesty. The Arabic language allows one word to have fifteen different meanings so Ash'aris endeavor to find the meaning that best befits God without contradicting the Quran. When God states in the Quran that he does not resemble any of his creation, it means God cannot be attributed with body parts because he created body parts. Maturidism was founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi who died in 944. It became the major tradition in Central Asia based on Hanafi law. This school is more influenced by Persian interpretations of Islam than Arabian culture. In contrast to traditionalistic approaches, Maturidism allows rejecting hadiths based on reason alone. Ethics do not need prophecy or revelation but can be understood by reason alone. One tribe known as Seljuk Turks migrated to Turkey where later the Ottoman Empire was established. Their preferred school of law achieved new prominence throughout their empire while followers of Shafi and Maliki schools followed Ash'ari and Athari thoughts. Traditionalist theology emerged among scholars of hadith who coalesced into a movement called ahl al-hadith under Ibn Hanbal's leadership. They condemned many points of Mu'tazilite doctrine and rationalistic methods used to defend them. In the 10th century AD al-Ash'ari and al-Maturidi found middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Athari literalism using rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most tenets of traditionalist doctrine. Although mainly Athari scholars who rejected this synthesis were in minority, their emotive narrative-based approach remained influential among urban masses particularly in Abbasid Baghdad.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan located in Tunisia served as an important center of Islamic learning from the 9th to 11th century with emphasis on the Maliki Madhhab. Historians have differed regarding exact delineation of schools based on underlying principles they follow. Many traditional scholars saw Sunni Islam divided into two groups: Ahl al-Ra'y meaning people of reason due to emphasis on scholarly judgment and discourse; and Ahl al-Hadith meaning people of traditions due to emphasis on restricting juristic thought to scripture only. Ibn Khaldun defined three schools: Hanafi representing reason, Zahiri representing tradition, and a broader middle school encompassing Shafi'ite Malikite and Hanbalite schools. During Middle Ages Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt delineated acceptable Sunni schools as only Hanafi Maliki Shafi'i and Hanbali excluding Zahiri school. The Ottoman Empire later reaffirmed official status of four schools as reaction to Shiite character of Persian Safavids. In contemporary era former Prime Minister of Sudan Al-Sadiq al-Mahdi recognized Zahiris keeping number at five alongside Amman Message issued by King Abdullah II of Jordan. Schools represent differing viewpoints on issues not considered core of Islamic belief. While one school may see certain act as religious obligation another may see same act as optional. These schools are not regarded as sects rather differing viewpoints on non-core matters. Conflict between schools was often violent in past but four Sunni schools recognize each other's validity and have interacted in legal debate over centuries.
The seeds of metamorphosis of caliphate into kingship were sown during regime of third caliph Uthman who appointed kinsmen from Banu Umayya including Marwan and Walid bin Uqba on important government positions. This became main cause of turmoil resulting in his murder and ensuing infighting during Ali's time. Muawiya another of Uthman's kinsman rebelled against Ali leading to establishment of firm dynastic rule of Banu Umayya after Husain younger son of Ali from Fatima was killed at Battle of Karbalā. The Meccan tribe of elites led by Abu Sufyan vehemently opposed Muhammad under leadership until conquest of Mecca. As successors with accession of Uthman they replaced egalitarian society formed result of Muhammad's revolution with stratified society between haves and have-nots through nepotism. El-Hibri describes this using religious charity revenues zakat to subsidize family interests justified as al-sila meaning pious filial support. Ali maintained austere lifestyle trying hard bring back egalitarian system and supremacy of law over ruler idealized in Muhammad's message but faced continued opposition wars one after another by Aisha-Talhah-Zubair Muawiya finally Kharijites. After he murdered followers elected Hasan ibn Ali elder son from Fatima succeed him. Hasan signed treaty with Muawiya relinquishing power favoring latter condition inter alia that one outliving other will be caliph leaving matter selection public. Subsequently Hasan poisoned death allowing Muawiya enjoy unchallenged power. Dishonoring treaty with Hasan he nominated son Yazid succeed him. Upon Muawiya's death Yazid asked Husain give allegiance which plainly refused. His caravan cordoned by Yazid army at Karbalā killed all male companions total 72 people day long battle after which Yazid established sovereign though strong public uprising erupted against dynasty avenging massacre Karbalā. Banu Umayya quickly suppressed revolts ruling Muslim world till finally overthrown by Banu Abbās. Rule came end hands of Banu Abbās branch of Banu Hashim tribe Muhammad ushering dynastic monarchy styled caliphate from 750 CE.
Shafi'ite scholar Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi died in 1037 and divided Sunnis into eight categories including theologians Kalam scholars Fiqh scholars traditional Hadith scholars Adab language scholars Koran scholars Sufi ascetics az-zuhhad as-sufiya those performing ribat jihad enemies Islam general crowd. According classification Sufis constitute one total eight groups within Sunnism defined according religious specialization. Tunisian scholar Muhammad ibn al-Qasim al-Bakki died 1510 included Sufis Sunnism dividing three groups: people Hadith principles based hearing-based evidence Book Quran Sunnah Ijma consensus; people theory intellectual trade include Asharites Hanafis latter consider Abū Mansūr al-Maturidi master agree rational principles questions no hearing-based evidence hearing-based principles everything reason conceives possible rational hearing-based principles all other questions agree dogmatic questions except question creation takwin question Taqlid; people feeling revelation ahl al-wijdan wa-l-kašf principles correspond initial stage two groups final stage rely revelation kašf inspiration ilham. Some ulema wanted exclude Sufis from Sunnism Yemeni scholar Abbas ibn Mansur as-Saksaki died 1284 explained Sufis associate themselves Sunnis but do not belong because contradict beliefs actions teachings distinguishing them orientation hidden inner meaning Qur'an Sunnah resembling Batinites. Final document Grozny Conference states only Sufis regarded Sunnis who people pure Sufism ahl at-tašauwuf as-safi knowledge ethics purification interior Method practiced Junaid Al-Baghdadi Imams Guidance followed path. In 11th century Sufism previously less codified trend Islamic piety began ordered crystallized Tariqahs orders continued present day. All orders founded major Sunni Islamic saint largest widespread included Qadiriyya after Abdul-Qadir Gilani died 1166 Rifa'iyya Ahmed al-Rifa'i died 1182 Chishtiyya Moinuddin Chishti died 1236 Shadiliyya Abul Hasan ash-Shadhili died 1258 Naqshbandiyya Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari died 1389. Contrary popular Orientalist depictions neither founders followers considered anything other orthodox Sunni Muslims. Most eminent defenders Islamic orthodoxy such Abd al-Qadir Jilani Al-Ghazali Sultan Salah ad-Din Ayyubi Saladin connected Sufism.
Barelvi movement follows Hanafi school jurisprudence Maturidi school theology hundreds millions followers moderate form Islam Muslims South Asia centuries follow encompasses variety Sufi orders including Chistis Qadiris Suhrawardis Naqshbandis many others sub-orders Sufism. Movement spread globe millions followers thousands mosques institutions organizations India Pakistan Bangladesh Afghanistan Sri Lanka United Kingdom South Africa parts Africa Europe Caribbean United States now over 200 million followers globally. Movement claims revive Sunnah embodied Qur'an literature traditions Hadith people lapsed Prophetic traditions consequently scholars took duty reminding Muslims go back ideal way Islam. Drew inspiration Sunni doctrines Shah Abdur Rahim lived 1644 to 1719 founder Madrasah-i Rahimiyah compiler Fatawa-e-Alamgiri father Shah Waliullah Dehlawi. Also drew inspiration Shah Abdul Aziz Muhaddith Dehlavi lived 1746 to 1824 Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi lived 1796 to 1861 founder Khairabad School. Fazle Haq Khairabadi Islamic scholar leader 1857 rebellion issued fatwas Wahabi Ismail Dehlvi doctrine God alleged ability lie Imkan-e-Kizb Delhi 1825. Ismail considered intellectual ancestor Deobandis. Movement emphasizes personal devotion oneness God Tawheed finality prophethood adherence Sharia Fiqh following four schools Ilm al-Kalam Sufi practices veneration saints things associated Sufism called Sunni Sufis defines authentic representative known Sunnī Islam thus adopts generic moniker Ahl-i-Sunnat wa-al-Jama'ah people adhere Prophetic Tradition preserve unity community. Fall end World War I Ottoman Empire biggest Sunni empire six centuries brought caliphate end resulting Sunni protests far places including Khilafat Movement India later gaining independence Britain divided into Sunni-dominated Pakistan secular India. Pakistan most populous Sunni state dawn partitioned Bangladesh. Demise Ottoman caliphate resulted emergence Saudi Arabia dynastic absolute monarchy championing reformist doctrines Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab eponym Wahhabi movement. Considerable rise influence Wahhabi Salafiyya Islamist Jihadist movements revived doctrines Hanbali theologian Taqi Al-Din Ibn Taymiyyah lived 1263 to 1328 CE 661 to 728 A.H fervent advocate traditions Sunni Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal. Expediences Cold War radicalized Afghan refugees Pakistan fought communist regime backed USSR forces Afghanistan giving birth Taliban movement. After fall communist regime Afghanistan ensuing civil war Taliban wrestled power various Mujahidin factions formed government Mohammed Omar addressed Emir faithful honorific way addressing caliph. Taliban regime recognized Pakistan Saudi Arabia till after 9/11 perpetrated Osama bin Laden Saudi national birth harbored Taliban took place resulting war terror launched against Taliban. Sequence events 20th century led resentment some quarters Sunni community loss pre-eminence several previously Sunni-dominated regions Levant Mesopotamia Balkans North Caucasus Indian sub continent. Latest attempt radical wing Salafi-Jihadists re-establish Sunni caliphate seen emergence militant group ISIL leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi known followers caliph Amir-al-mu'mineen Commander Faithful. Jihadism opposed Muslim community ummah world evidenced turnout almost 2% Muslim population London protesting ISIL.
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Common questions
When did Sunni Islam gain political significance after the murder of Uthman?
Sunni Islam gained political significance in 656 CE following the murder of the third caliph Uthman. The phrase sunnah became a rallying cry during the Battle of Siffin when Malik al-Ashtar encouraged resistance against Muawiya.
Who founded the Ashari theological school and what were their dates?
Abu al-Hasan al-Ashari lived between 873 and 935 and founded the Ashari theological school. This school stressed divine revelation over human reason and rejected the Mu'tazili position that Quranic references to God's attributes were metaphorical.
Which four schools of law are recognized as valid by Sunni Muslims today?
The four recognized Sunni schools of law are Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. These schools emerged from historical debates and were officially reaffirmed by the Ottoman Empire as a reaction to the Shiite character of the Persian Safavids.
What is the origin of the term Sunnah in pre-Islamic language?
The Arabic word sunna means the right path that has always been followed and dates back to pre-Islamic language. It later received connotations critical of Shi'i doctrines during the second Civil War between 680 and 692.
When did the Great Mosque of Kairouan serve as an important center of Islamic learning?
The Great Mosque of Kairouan located in Tunisia served as an important center of Islamic learning from the 9th to 11th century. The mosque emphasized the Maliki Madhhab during this period of significant Islamic scholarship.