Ghaznavids
In 961, the death of Abd al-Malik I triggered a succession crisis within the Samanid Empire. Two military families emerged from Turkic slave-guards to challenge the crumbling authority. The Simjurids received an appanage in the Kohistan region of eastern Khorasan. Alp Tigin and Abu al-Hasan Simjuri competed for control by placing emirs they could dominate on the throne. A court party instigated by civilian ministers rejected Alp Tigin's candidacy for the Samanid throne. Mansur I was installed instead, forcing Alp Tigin to retire south of the Hindu Kush. He captured Ghazna and became its ruler as a Samanid authority. His son-in-law Sabuktigin later married Alp Tigin's daughter after fleeing to Ghazna following a failed coup attempt. Sabuktigin conquered the city from local Lawik rulers in 962. After Alp Tigin died in 963, his slave Sabuktigin became governor of Ghazna. Sabuktigin reformed the military fief system which had been changing into permanent ownership. This reform made all lands mustaghall-type fiefs again. In 976, he ended conflict between two Turkic ghulams at Bust. Later that same year, Sabuktigin campaigned against Qusdar. He caught the ruler off guard and obtained an annual tribute from him.
In 998, Mahmud succeeded to the governorship of Ghazni. He emphasized loyalty in a letter to the caliph stating the Samanids were replaced due to treason. Mahmud received titles of Yamin al-Dawla and Amin al-Milla. He championed Sunni Islam by campaigning against Ismaili and Shi'ite Buyids. By all accounts, his rule was the golden age of the empire. Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India to establish control. His raids resulted in looting great amounts of plunder. He established authority from Ray to Samarkand and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. In 1001, he defeated the Hindu Shahi in the Battle of Peshawar. In 1004-5, he invaded the Principality of Bhatiya. In 1006, he took the neighbouring Emirate of Multan. In 1018, he laid waste to Mathura which was described as the richest city in India. All idols were burnt and destroyed during a period of twenty days. Gold and silver were smelted for booty before the city was set on fire. In 1026, he raided and plundered the Somnath temple taking away a booty of 20 million dinars. The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous. Contemporary historians gave glowing descriptions of the capital's magnificence.
Mahmud died in April 1030 and chose his son Mohammed as successor. Mohammed was mild and affectionate but his brother Mas'ud asked for three provinces won by his sword. Mas'ud fought his brother and became king after blinding and imprisoning Mohammed. Mas'ud was unable to preserve the empire following a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. He lost all Ghaznavid lands in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks. This event plunged the realm into what is called a time of troubles. His last act was collecting treasures from forts hoping to assemble an army. His own forces plundered the wealth instead. He proclaimed his blind brother as king again. The two brothers exchanged positions with Mohammed elevated from prison to the throne. Mas'ud was consigned to a dungeon after a reign of ten years and assassinated in 1040. Mas'ud's son Madood came to Ghazni to claim the kingdom after hearing of his father's death. He fought with the sons of blind Mohammed and was victorious. However, the empire soon disintegrated and most kings did not submit to him. In nine years four more kings claimed the throne of Ghazni.
Although the dynasty originated from Central Asian Turks it was thoroughly Persianised in language and culture. The level of literary creativity remained high under Ebrāhīm and successors up to Bahrāmšāh. Poets such as Abu'l-Faraj Rūnī and Sanā'ī worked at the court. The court in Lahore had an array of fine poets though none of their dīvāns survived. The translator of Kalīla wa Demna served the sultan as chief secretary. Persian literary culture enjoyed a renaissance during the 11th century. The poet Farrukhi traveled from his home province to work for them. Unsuri dedicated a short collection of poetry to Sultan Mahmud and his brothers Nasr and Yaqub. Manuchehri wrote numerous poems about the merits of drinking wine. Sultan Mahmud made Ghazni into a center of learning inviting Ferdowsi and al-Biruni. He even attempted to persuade Avicenna but was refused. Hundreds of poets assembled at his court to publicize his fame in Persian. He brought whole libraries from Rayy and Isfahan to Ghazni. The historian Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi's Tarikh-e Beyhaqi written in the latter half of the 11th century is an example of historical writing developed by the dynasty.
The core of the army was primarily made up of Turks and thousands of native Afghans. A new larger military training center was established in Bost now known as Lashkar Gah. This area was known for blacksmiths where war weapons were made. After conquering the Punjab region the Ghaznavids began employing Hindus in their army. Indian soldiers lived in their own quarter of Ghazna practicing their own religion. Their commander was called sipahsalar-i-Hinduwan. Indian soldiers under Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were used against a Turkic rebel with command given to a Hindu named Tilak. Arabian horses were still substantial in earliest campaigns especially during dashing raids deep into hostile territory. There is a record of 6000 Arab horse being sent against king Anandapala in 1008. Evidence of this Arabian cavalry persists until 1118 under the governor in Lahore. During the 11th and 12th centuries they developed the first Muslim army to use war elephants in battle. The elephants were protected by armour plating on their fronts. The use of these elephants was a foreign weapon in other regions particularly Central Asia.
During the Ghaznavid era artistic production reached its height due to increased patronage from elites. Economic benefits came from spoils gained through increasing raids and forced tributes from India. The attack on the Somnath Temple resulted in a large hoard of treasure entering the empire. Bronze-works appear influenced by earlier Samanid pieces yet are unique enough for early trademarks. Two bronze ewers analyzed by Eva Baer denote influence from contemporary ceramics in shape and construction. Other works included garden murals added by Mas'ud I in the Herat palace complex. These had representational depictions including nude figures in convivial scenes. The capital Ghazni was considered a center for lyrical poetry in the eastern Islamic world. Architecture flourished specifically in marble reliefs with geometric vegetal and epigraphic designs. Near the Palace of Mas'ud III there is a minaret constructed of baked and unbaked pressed clay bricks. It stood next to the palace before its top half crumbled in 1902 due to an earthquake. Excavations uncovered numerous carved marble panels featuring trefoil arches scrollwork and inscriptions in Persian and Arabic. One celebrated work is a marble panel now in the Brooklyn Museum with Kufic script above intricate vegetal motifs.
Sultan Bahram Shah ruled Ghazni for thirty-five years as the last Ghaznavid King. In 1148 he was defeated in Ghazni by Sayf al-Din Suri but recaptured it the next year. Ala al-Din Husayn conquered the city in 1151 in revenge for his brother's death. He razed the city burning it for seven days after which he became known as Jahānsuz or World Burner. Ghazni was restored to the Ghaznavids by intervention of the Seljuks who came to aid Bahram. Struggles with the Ghurids continued as they nibbled away at territory. Zabulistan was lost to Oghuz Turks before being captured by the Ghurids around 1170. After the fall of Ghazni in 1163 the Ghaznavids established themselves in Lahore. This regional capital had been their base since its conquest by Mahmud of Ghazni. It became the new capital of the Late Ghaznavids. Power in northwestern India continued until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186. Khusrau Malik was deposed and later executed in Firozkoh in 1191 extinguishing the lineage.
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Common questions
Who founded the Ghaznavid dynasty and when did they capture Ghazna?
Alp Tigin captured Ghazna in 962 after fleeing south of the Hindu Kush. His slave Sabuktigin later became governor of Ghazna following Alp Tigin's death in 963.
When did Mahmud of Ghazni conduct his expeditions into northern India?
Mahmud carried out seventeen expeditions through northern India between 1001 and 1026 to establish control. He defeated the Hindu Shahi in the Battle of Peshawar in 1001 and raided the Somnath temple in 1026.
What happened to the Ghaznavid Empire after Mas'ud lost the Battle of Dandanaqan?
Mas'ud lost all Ghaznavid lands in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks after the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. This event plunged the realm into a time of troubles that led to rapid disintegration.
Which languages were used by the Ghaznavid court during the 11th century?
The dynasty was thoroughly Persianised in language and culture despite originating from Central Asian Turks. Persian literary culture enjoyed a renaissance during the 11th century with poets like Abu'l-Faraj Rūnī and Sanā'ī working at the court.
When did the Ghurids conquer Lahore and end the Ghaznavid lineage?
Muhammad of Ghor conquered Lahore in 1186, ending power in northwestern India. Khusrau Malik was deposed and later executed in Firozkoh in 1191, extinguishing the lineage.