Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy
The collapse of the African front on the 4th of November 1942 exposed Italy to invasion by Allied forces. The defeat of the Italian expeditionary force in the Eastern Front and heavy aerial bombings demoralized the population. Most citizens wanted to end the war and denounce the alliance with Nazi Germany. Italy needed German aid to maintain control of Tunisia, the last Axis stronghold in Africa. On the 29th of April 1943, Adolf Hitler rejected Mussolini's proposition to seek a separate peace with Russia. The Wehrmacht refused requests for reinforcements because they no longer trusted the Italian will to resist. Mussolini suffered from gastritis and duodenitis of a nervous origin, often forcing him to stay home. His illness deprived Italy of effective government during a critical period.
Several groups belonging to four different circles began looking for a way out after the Tunisian loss. Aristocrats like Crown Princess Marie-José and pre-Fascist politicians started plots to contact the Allies independently. The King expected moves from higher-placed personalities and disregarded these smaller contacts. Anti-Fascist parties remained weak after twenty years of dictatorship. They waited for a signal from King Victor Emmanuel III, whose inaction stemmed from constitutional scruples and fear. General Vittorio Ambrosio became Chief of the General Staff and occupied key positions with officials devoted to the King. He tried to bring back forces from abroad without arousing suspicion in Germany. On the 6th of February 1943, Mussolini carried out the most wide-ranging government reshuffle in twenty-one years of Fascist power. Almost all ministers were changed, including Galeazzo Ciano and Dino Grandi. This operation failed to placate public opinion about the Fascist Party.
On the night of the 10th of July, Allied forces landed in Sicily despite Italian expectations. Italian forces collapsed without fighting, even at Augusta, the island's most fortified stronghold. Bastianini went to Palazzo Venezia on the 16th of July to show Mussolini a telegram reproaching the Germans for not sending reinforcements. The Duce approved the message but refused direct involvement in contacting the Allies. A secret emissary named Giovanni Fummi was supposed to reach London via Madrid or Lisbon. The fall of Sicily occurred within five weeks, leaving armed forces incapable of resisting an invasion of mainland Italy. Mussolini wrote to Hitler requesting a meeting to discuss the situation. The Führer asked him to meet as soon as possible due to daily reports from Eugen Dollmann. The meeting took place on the 19th of July in the villa of Senator Achille Gaggia in Feltre. Ambrosio told Mussolini his duty was to exit the war in the next fifteen days. Hitler began by blaming Italians for weak military performance and asking for draconian measures. An Italian aide interrupted the meeting to inform Mussolini that Rome was being heavily bombed for the first time. Mussolini eventually interrupted the scheduled three-day meeting to return to Rome.
Dino Grandi decided to move after the failure of the Feltre meeting. On the 19th of July, he left Bologna with a draft of his Order of the Day intended for the Grand Council. He reached Rome one day later and met Carlo Scorza, who confirmed Mussolini had decided to convene the assembly. Grandi believed approval of his document would signal the King to take action. The document contained three parts: a rhetorical appeal to the nation, a request to restore pre-Fascist institutions, and an appeal to the King to assume supreme power under Article 5 of the constitution. Grandi could not reveal the real consequences of approval to his colleagues. Only a couple of members understood that the OdG implied the dismissal of Mussolini and the end of the Fascist Party. On the 21st of July, Mussolini ordered Scorza to convene the Grand Council. Grandi explained his document to Scorza, who agreed to support it. The Duce called the document cowardly and refused to accept it. Scorza secretly prepared another version asking for concentration of power in the Fascist Party. Grandi modified the original by removing interpretative introductions to demonstrate constitutional powers.
At 17:00 on the 24th of July 1943, twenty-eight members of the Grand Council met in the parrot room of Palazzo Venezia. For the first time, no bodyguard or M battalions were present inside the Renaissance palace. Fully armed blackshirts occupied the yard and antechamber. Grandi brought two hidden Breda hand grenades because he feared he might not leave alive. Mussini summarized war events and asked participants for their opinion on choosing between war or peace. De Bono spoke first, followed by Farinacci and De Vecchi. Grandi read out his document, concluding with Mussolini's citation about letting factions perish so the Nation can live. Farinacci argued that betrayal was against Fascism itself, not the constitution. Bottai made a purely political speech defending the OdG. Ciano declared Italians were betrayed rather than traitors. At 23:30, the Duce announced a postponement to the next day. Grandi called for an immediate vote, saying it was shameful to sleep while soldiers died. The meeting suspended for ten minutes before voting began at midnight. Scorza voted no, but Marshal de Bono voted yes and towed undecided members with him. The OdG obtained nineteen votes for and eight against. Mussolini declared the document approved and asked who should bring the result to the King.
Grandi met with Pietro d'Acquarone until 06:00 after the Grand Council meeting to deliver copies of the Order of the Day. At 07:00, d'Acquarone informed the King. Victor Emmanuel called Badoglio to name him successor to Mussolini. The arrest occurred at 17:00 at Villa Savoia where the King waited. Captain Paolo Vigneri of the Carabinieri carried out the order alongside Captain Raffaele Aversa. Mussolini arrived at the villa carrying copies of laws and letters from Cianetti. He tried to convince the King that the OdG had no legal value. The King told him the country was broken and required his resignation. Badoglio became new President of the Council of Ministers. Vigneri escorted Mussolini to a nearby ambulance instead of his car. The ambulance rushed through Rome to reach Podgora army barracks in Trastevere before moving to Legnano barracks in Prati. Two days later, Mussolini was transferred to Gaeta on the corvette Persefone. He eventually reached Campo Imperatore where he remained until freed by Otto Skorzeny on the 12th of September 1943. At 22:45 on the 25th of July, Titta Arista announced Mussolini's resignation over radio.
The Germans received news about Mussolini's arrest around 19:30 and informed Berlin immediately. Hitler was infuriated by the change in regime. Farinacci went to the German embassy but refused to join armored Division M encamped at Monterotondo. Units of the 44th Infantry Division and 36th Mountain Brigade broke through passes into South Tyrol. From the 26th of July until the 8th of August, eight German divisions moved without Italian consent to northern and central Italy. The forty-six days from Mussolini's arrest to the public notification of the Armistice of Cassibile set in motion numerous actions. Badoglio government proclaimed a state of siege and curfew on the 26th of July. Representatives of political parties met secretly despite prohibitions. Demonstrations against Badoglio resulted in eighty-three deaths and hundreds wounded across the country. Grandi transmitted accounts of meetings to foreign press representatives but faced blockage. The conflicting actions of the Badoglio government brought about national catastrophe on the 8th of September. This included the meltdown of armed forces facing Operation Achse designed to disarm them. Germany occupied all of central and northern Italy by the 19th of September. The 12th of September freeing of Mussolini with the Gran Sasso raid led to establishment of the Italian Social Republic.
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Common questions
When did the collapse of the African front occur and how did it impact Italy?
The collapse of the African front occurred on the 4th of November 1942. This event exposed Italy to invasion by Allied forces and demoralized the population due to heavy aerial bombings.
Who was the King of Italy during the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943?
King Victor Emmanuel III remained the monarch throughout the crisis. His inaction stemmed from constitutional scruples and fear until he ordered Mussolini's arrest on the 25th of July 1943.
What happened at the Grand Council meeting on the 24th of July 1943?
Twenty-eight members met in the parrot room of Palazzo Venezia to vote on Dino Grandi's Order of the Day. The motion passed with nineteen votes for and eight against, leading to Mussolini's dismissal.
Where was Benito Mussolini held after his arrest on the 25th of July 1943?
Mussolini was first taken to Podgora army barracks in Trastevere before moving to Legnano barracks in Prati. He was later transferred to Gaeta on the corvette Persefone and finally imprisoned at Campo Imperatore.
When did Germany occupy all of central and northern Italy following the armistice?
Germany occupied all of central and northern Italy by the 19th of September 1943. This occupation followed the Armistice of Cassibile which was publicly notified on the 8th of September 1943.