Operation Achse
On the 9th of May 1943, two days after the fall of Tunis to Allied forces, the German High Command informed the Italian Supreme Command that three new units would be formed. These units were mostly second-line divisions evacuated from North Africa. They became known as the Sardinia Command and later the 90th Light Infantry Division, the Sicily Command which evolved into the 15th Infantry Division, and a ready reserve force. Adolf Hitler wrote directly to Benito Mussolini explaining that these weak units required reinforcements. Two additional German divisions arrived from France in mid-May 1943. The 1st Fallschirm-Panzer Division Hermann Göring landed in Sicily while the 16th Panzer Division moved west of Bari by early June. On the 19th of May, headquarters for General Hans Hube's XIV Panzer Corps also departed France to strengthen Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's command structure. During a prolonged discussion at his headquarters on the 20th of May 1943, Hitler expressed deep doubts about political stability within the Fascist government. A report by diplomat Konstantin von Neurath revealed declining morale among Italians and growing pro-British sentiment among professional classes. Hitler concluded that Mediterranean conditions demanded immediate attention and detailed contingency planning for potential Italian collapse or Mussolini's overthrow. Additional intelligence from Heinrich Himmler's operatives and reports about General Mario Roatta's untrustworthiness strengthened Hitler's suspicions. By the 21st of May, Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel issued guidelines responding to possible Italian defection from the Axis alliance. These plans included Operation Alarich for mainland invasion, Operation Konstantin for Balkan neutralization, Operation Siegfried for southern French occupation, Operation Nürnberg for border security, and Operation Kopenhagen for Alpine pass control. German reserves continued redeployment toward Mediterranean threats throughout this period.
After some fruitless attempts by minor officials like embassy officer Blasco Lanza D'Ajeta to contact Allied forces, General Giuseppe Castellano left Rome for Madrid on the 12th of August 1943. He met British ambassador Sir Samuel Hoare who then directed him to Lisbon for initial talks with American emissaries. On the 17th of August, the first meeting occurred between Castellano and General Walter Bedell Smith alongside political advisers Kenneth Strong and George F. Kennan. The Allies' demands required complete unconditional surrender rather than negotiated terms. Castellano found himself in great difficulty since instructions from Pietro Badoglio demanded bargaining for exit terms plus strong military collaboration involving fifteen British and American divisions landing simultaneously north and south of Rome. During a second meeting at Cassibile, Sicily on the 31st of August, the Italian envoy unsuccessfully insisted again on inclusion in Allied operational details. An American airborne division intervention to protect Rome became agreed upon as Operation Giant 2. On the 1st of September, after consultation between King Victor Emmanuel III, Foreign Minister Raffaele Guariglia, and Chief of Staff Ambrosio, the Allies received radio confirmation accepting armistice conditions. Castellano and Bedell Smith signed the Armistice of Cassibile on the 3rd of September before representatives Harold Macmillan and Robert Daniel Murphy. A grievous mistake regarding announcement timing plagued these negotiations. The Badoglio government hoped to delay public disclosure until at least the 12th of September to organize resistance against German forces. Only during the night of the 8th of September did Badoglio learn from General Maxwell Taylor that Dwight Eisenhower would announce the surrender that very evening. Badoglio protested vainly seeking another postponement while leaders made an awful impression on Taylor who advised abandoning Operation Giant 2 due to expected failure given disorganized Italian forces around Rome. In the morning of the 8th of September, Allied bombers attacked Kesselring's headquarters in Frascati causing heavy civilian casualties though failing their primary objective. At 18:00 on the 8th of September, a hurried Council of the Crown convened at the Quirinale Palace involving King Victor Emmanuel III, Badoglio, Ambrosio, Guariglia, General Giacomo Carboni, War Minister Antonio Sorice, Admiral Raffaele de Courten, Air Force Minister Renato Sandalli, Paolo Puntoni, Giuseppe De Stefanis, and Major Luigi Marchesi. After heated discussions where Carboni proposed retracting Castellano's actions, they finally agreed with Marchesi to keep their word to Allies. At 18:30 General Eisenhower announced the armistice via Radio Algiers while at 19:42 Badoglio delivered his proclamation through EIAR broadcaster. Despite previous reassurances of loyalty expressed by Rahn meeting the king on the 3rd of September and Toussaint thinking Italians rejected harsh demands until the 6th of September, Rahn was taken completely by surprise when he met Guariglia at 19:00 on the 8th of September confirming news about Italy exiting the war.
Italian commanders concentrated approximately 55,000 men and 200 armored fighting vehicles around Rome including the Motorized-Armored Army Corps under General Giacomo Carboni. This force comprised the 10th Infantry Division Piave, 21st Granatieri di Sardegna, 135th Ariete Armored Cavalry, 136th Centauro Legionary, plus additional units like Sassari, Piacenza, Re, and Lupi di Toscana divisions. German forces near Rome consisted of Kurt Student's 11th Airborne Corps containing Walter Barenthin's 2nd Parachute Division south of Rome and Fritz-Hubert Gräser's 3rd Panzergrenadier Division north of Rome between Orvieto and Lake Bolsena. These units totaled roughly 26,000 men with hundreds of armored vehicles activated by Kesselring that evening of the 8th of September. Already at 20:30 they attacked the Mezzocammino fuel depot while paratroopers advanced south overcoming sporadic resistance from Piacenza Division in Lanuvio, Albano Laziale, and Ardea. By 21:30 the 2nd Parachute Division reached the EUR district overpowering Piacenza and Granatieri di Sardegna units before advancing along Via Ostiensis to Magliana bridge. Meanwhile the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division moved north via Aurelia, Cassia, and Flaminia routes but halted near Lake Bracciano after negotiations suspended its advance. Fierce fighting erupted at Magliana between German forces and Granatieri di Sardegna supported by Ariete II armor until 02:00 on the 9th of September when Ciampino airport was captured. An hour later news arrived showing German troops had reached Tor Sapienza just eight kilometers from city center along Via Prenestina. More alarming developments pushed political leadership to abandon the city after uncertain orders from Ambrosio attempting contact with Kesselring. Roatta exhorted King Victor Emmanuel III and Badoglio to flee Rome via Tiburtina road then ordered retreat toward Tivoli before abandoning the capital himself leaving Carboni without instructions. Carboni fled in civilian clothes re-entering the city morning of the 10th of September when situation became definitely compromised. Umberto Utili declared General Staff formally dissolved morning of the 9th of September while subordinate commands showed bewilderment. At 05:10 on the 9th of September the King and Badoglio escaped Rome in seven cars passing Tivoli and Avezzano reaching Pescara then Ortona where fleeing officers gathered. There they boarded corvette Baionetta arriving Brindisi at 14:30 on the 10th of September after Allied troops safely landed Taranto, Brindisi, and Bari during Operation Slapstick. Defenses around Rome completely collapsed southward as paratroopers fought sporadic battles against Granatieri di Sardegna and Ariete II units at Magliana and Cecchignola. By 17:00 on the 9th of September Magliana abandoned by Italian forces allowing 2nd Parachutist Division advance near Porta San Paolo evening. Northward armored vehicles restarted advancing capturing Manziana, Monterosi at 14:00, and Bracciano at 17:00 while other units advanced toward Civitavecchia and Cesano La Storta. Piave and Ariete II divisions left positions ordered toward Tivoli while Sassari and Re divisions deployed along Cassia and Salaria roads. Parachutists under Major Walter Gericke parachuted over Monterotondo at 09:00 tasked capturing Italian Army headquarters already abandoned engaging hard fighting ending success evening of the 9th of September. Units from 2nd Parachute Division attacked Porta San Paolo two kilometers from Piazza Venezia held by Granatieri di Sardegna and civilian volunteers overcoming resistance after fierce combat reaching city center morning of the 10th of September. Siegfried Westphal Chief of Staff negotiated with Colonel Giaccone of Centauro blackshirts leading commands deciding to keep it away from battle obtaining capitulation afternoon of the 10th of September after discussions with Generals Carboni, Sorice, and Marshal Enrico Caviglia despite artillery firing inside city. Westphal promised sparing city authorizing provisional command under Giorgio Calvi di Bergolo evanescent agreement soon revoked by Germans. By the 15th of September all Italian troops disarmed; the 23rd of September Calvi di Bergolo arrested assuming control through Generals Stahel and Chieli maintaining open city status never recognized by Allies exploited as key logistic junction for frontline supplies.
Field Marshal Kesselring managed retaining control despite busy avoiding isolation containing Allied attacks launched in three different landing areas including Salerno Apulia and Calabria while carrying out Achse plan tasks. He quickly dissolved Italian forces stationed within his area capturing Rome and disengaging mobile units sent south against Allies like 3rd Panzergrenadier Division reaching Salerno on the 12th of September after capturing Rome. Restricting himself summarily disarming majority captured soldiers then sending them home only 24,294 of 102,340 Italian soldiers held captive remained imprisoned. Italian forces in Campania weak quickly overwhelmed German troops destroying Naples garrison after two days resistance executed Colonel Olivier commanding armored column. XIX Italian Army Corps dissolved the 11th of September after commander General Del Tetto abandoned post sheltering monastery while 9th Pasubio Infantry Division still re-forming near Eastern Front destruction immediately disarmed. In Salerno area 222nd Coastal Division attacked dispersed killing Commander Ferrante Vincenzo Gonzaga refusing surrender. The 7th Italian Army under Mario Arisio stationed Calabria Basilicata Apulia faced scarce German forces moved northward attacking the 9th of September headquarters Potenza captured surprise though overall weakness swift Allied intervention helped maintain unit cohesion majority. IX Italian Army Corps Roberto Lerici held central northern Apulia collapsing 209th Coastal Division while Nicola Bellomo held Bari harbor until Allied arrival southern positions maintained by Legnano Piceno Mantova divisions between Grottaglie Lecce. Foggia occupied locally Felice Caperdoni shot ordering men lay weapons down. XXXI Italian Army Corps Mercalli stationed Calabria three coastal divisions plus 104th Mantova Division attacked 76th Panzerkorps sustaining casualties III Battalion/185th Nembo Regiment sided Germans joining 1st Parachute Division. Frido von Senger und Etterlin ordered withdraw Corsica 90th Panzergrenadier Division complete success maneuver lacking mobility Italian forces present Antonio Basso commanding Sabauda Calabria Bari Nembo 203rd 204th 205th Coastal Divisions did not go action until the 12th of September due previous agreements German commands not impeding transfer completed the 18th of September few wounded caused skirmish near Oristano XII Battalion Nembo mutinied killing chief staff Alberto Bechi Lucerna joined 90th Panzergrenadier Division. In Corsica confusion fruitless negotiations Giovanni Magli VII Italian Army Corps Friuli Cremona attacked Waffen-SS Reichführer-SS brigade French units landed Ajaccio the 12th of September Bastia fell German hands the 13th of September following 90th Panzergrenadier arrival from Sardinia Wehrmacht Supreme Command ordered Von Senger leave island withdraw Piombino German forces evacuated Corsica the 4th of October despite attacks Italian French forces including 4th Moroccan Mountain Division. the 12th of September paratrooper units Harald Mors Otto Skorzeny located Mussolini prisons carried Operation Eiche freeing him Campo Imperatore Gran Sasso essential premise creation new fascist collaborationist government wanted Hitler.
Strategic situation central northern Italy much favorable Germans than south Army Group B under Field Marshal Rommel possessed considerable troops far Allied intervention ready intervene against Italian units less prepared lacking clear orders. Behavior many Italian commanders further favored Achse plan success local superior commands mostly concerned avoiding riots devastation popular insurrections refused civilian help autonomously dissolved units started negotiations Germans uneventful handover Even civilian leadership major cities followed instructions police chief Carmine Senise aimed avoiding riots collaborating German authorities Under circumstances Rommel carried task speed efficiency while many Italian units quickly disintegrated offering little resistance Army Group B strictly carried internment orders sending captured soldiers Germany by the 20th of September 183,300 of 13,000 officers 402,000 soldiers already sent home. German units Piedmont neutralized Italian units Turin General Rossi refused arming civilians ordered firing crowd during demonstration the 18th of August initiated negotiations Novara General Casentino surrendered entire command without resistance immediately handed weapons disintegrating units Rossi surrendered German armored units entered Turin later joined Italian Social Republic Liguria the 11th of September 87th Corps 51st Corps occupied positions XVI Italian Army Corps Rovigo Alpi Graie dissolved German units entered naval base La Spezia though Italian fleet sailed ships unable sail scuttled sabotaged Milan Vittorio Ruggero commander garrison bought time 48 hours reached agreement colonel 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler Ruggero dissolved without fight 5th Cosseria Division being re-formed heavy losses Russia following day Waffen-SS broke agreement occupied Milan arrested Ruggero sent POW camps Germany Verona brief resistance Guglielmo Orengo disarmed deported Trentino-South Tyrol Alpine Wall fortifications Italian units quickly disintegrated the 9th of September two alpine divisions XXV Army Alessandro Gloria Tridentina Cuneense under reconstitution after Eastern Front destruction attacked disarmed 44th Infantry Division Doelha Brigade Rovereto some units resisted morning the 10th of September surrender Emilia 2nd SS-Panzerkorps Paul Hausser occupied territory destroyed weak Italian units Modena Bologna entered quickly Principe Amedeo Duca d'Aosta Cavalry Division disarmed soldiers taken prisoner 71st German Infantry Division encountered difficulty occupying Friuli Julian March 3rd Julia Sforzesca Divisions soon disarmed 52nd Torino put resistance Gorizia workers formed first partisan groups Slovene partisan formations invaded region often inflicting bloody reprisals against Italian civilian population End month 71st German Infantry Division assisted Italian Social Republic collaborationist soldiers regained control repelled Yugoslav partisans occupied territory Trieste Alberto Ferrero fruitless talks anti-fascist representatives started negotiations Germans abandoned city 90,000 Italian soldiers area surrendered without fight central Italy north Rome 5th Mario Caracciolo di Feroleto dissolved Orte the 11th of September soldiers disarmed interned 3rd Ravenna Grosseto northern Tyrrhenian Sea coastal formations disintegrated cities Livorno captured 10 Florence Armellini Chiappi allowed Germans enter Arezzo Laurei Massa gave forces without attempting resistance Piombino Italian units civilian volunteers repelled German landing attempt 10-the 11th of September killing capturing hundreds German soldiers the 12th of September Italian superior commands surrendered town Army Group B completed task the 19th of September occupying entire central northern Italy disarming capturing great part Italian troops sizable booty including 236 armored fighting vehicles 1,138 field guns 536 anti-tank guns 797 anti-aircraft guns 5,926 machine guns 386,000 rifles Alongside 13,000 officers 402,000 Italian soldiers 43,000 Allied prisoners previously held Italians also captured Rommel organized quick transfer Germany captured Italian soldiers sent Brenner Pass partly train partly foot.
Italian forces Balkans Slovenia Dalmatia Croatia Bosnia Herzegovina Montenegro Albania Greece amounted over 30 divisions 500,000 soldiers engaged two years waging counter-guerrilla operations against Yugoslav Greek partisans. Forces consisted 2nd Mario Robotti Army Slovenia Dalmatia 9th Lorenzo Dalmazzo Army Albania under control Ezio Rosi Army Group East including Bosnia Montenegro troops 11th Carlo Vecchiarelli Army Greece subordinate Alexander Löhr Army Group E. Exhausted years wearing anti-partisan operations characterized brutalities reprisals repression isolated hostile territory mixed numerous German divisions over 20 Army Group F Von Weichs Army Group E General Löhr Croat collaborationist units September 9 severed ties Italy joining Germany fight former ally Without land connection confusing vague orders units quickly disintegrated many soldiers disarmed captured deported Germany However Italian soldiers area fought determination than units left Italy suffering heavy casualties harsh reprisals German units Some units managed escape capture joined Yugoslav Greek partisan formations subsequently fighting alongside them population often friendly helping soldiers German forces less numerous mobile determined well-led enjoying complete air supremacy quickly prevailed brutally crushing Italian resistance often summarily executing Italian officers occupying entire Balkan region 393,000 Italian soldiers captured deported about 29,000 joined Germans 20,000 joined Partisan formations 57,000 dispersed hid tried survive Yugoslavia V XI XVIII Corps forming 2nd Mario Robotti Army Slovenia Croatia Dalmatia attacked two Croat three German divisions Gastone Gambara XI Italian Army Corps started negotiations Fiume abandoned troops the 14th of September leaving captured Pola fell without resistance the 11th of September divisions Dalmatia ordered avoid resistance hoping peaceful repatriation subordinate units refused starting fighting Germans 14th Isonzo 22nd Cacciatori delle Alpi 153rd Macerata dissolved whereas 57th Lombardia 154th Murge resisted Susak Karlovac 158th Zara surrendered the 10th of September commanders deported Split 15th Bergamo made agreement Yugoslav partisans defended town till the 27th of September against 7th Prinz Eugen SS Volunteer Mountain Division sent Mostar surrender three Italian generals Alfonso Cigala Fulgosi Salvatore Pelligra Angelo Policardi executed 46 officers 1st Eugenio di Savoia Cavalry Division dispersed Bosnia Herzegovina 18th Messina resisted four days 32nd Marche tried defending Dubrovnik crushed German forces Giuseppe Amico commander Division captured parley released convince men surrender rallied them instead Germans recaptured later executed Montenegro 23rd Ferrara disintegrated 155th Emilia defended Bay Kotor till the 16th of September then surrendered soldiers 19th Venezia 1st Taurinense Alpine Divisions joined Tito's partisans formed Partisan Division Garibaldi keeping fighting Germans despite violent incomprehensions Yugoslavs till March 1945 Albania six divisions 9th Dalmazzo Army headquarters Rosi Tirana Left clear orders Italian commanders showed indecision insufficient fighting spirit German forces Superior Command Kroatien two Jäger mountain division part 1st Panzer Division acted swiftly great aggressiveness morning the 11th of September command Army Group East surrounded General Rosi immediately captured officers while Dalmazzo did not react attacks issue resistance order started negotiations hastening disintegration forces 11th Brennero Princivalle ambivalent behavior 38th Puglie 49th Parma 53rd Arezzo handed weapons dissolved most men Brennero managed return Italy sea considerable part Arezzo escaped joining partisans 41st Firenze Arnaldo Azzi 151st Perugia Ernesto Chiminello tried resist Firenze faced Germans battle defeated near Kruja after which dissolved men joined partisan formations Perugia retreated Porto Edda some men embarked ships headed Italy majority weakened exhausting march continuous attacks surrounded surrendered the 22nd of September Chiminello 130 officers executed survivors joined partisans forming Antonio Gramsci Battalion Over 15,000 dispersed soldiers sheltered population 21st German Mountain Corps established headquarters Tirana already the 10th of September Overall about 90,000 Italian soldiers captured Albania further 45,000 evaded capture dispersed country sheltered population exchange labor many succumbed cold starvation British documents estimated mortality among Italian soldiers Albania hundred deaths per day winter 1943-1944.
German commands believed retaining control Ionian Islands Dodecanese garrisoned Italian troops great importance peripheral naval air base defensive stronghold against possible Allied attacks Balkan front Therefore launched series operations capturing important islands sizable concentration land air forces causing bloody battles Italian garrisons resisting relying numerical superiority geographical isolation cases Allied assistance atrocities surrender Allies despite Winston Churchill insistence powerful intervention support Italian garrisons secure valuable bases useful attacks southern Balkan front Fortress Europe only sent weak contingents scarce air support unable change course events progressively turned favor Wehrmacht Crete 51st Siena LI Special Brigade Lecce neutralized disarmed immediately German forces Kreta fortress brigade 22nd Air Landing Division veteran Netherlands invasion Siege Sebastopol part Italian soldiers joined Germans imprisoned transferred mainland Greece sea least 4,700 drowned sinking Allied submarine attacks ships Sinfra Petrella carrying them Rhodes quickly fell Germans Regina Cuneo Divisions 34,000 men enjoyed numerical superiority General Kleeman Rhodos Division 7,000 men inconclusive battle Admiral Inigo Campioni surrendered threatened heavy bombings town Karpathos occupied German forces the 13th of September Campioni ordered island garrison surrender Over 6,500 Italian soldiers Rhodes garrison died after surrender most sinking steamers Oria Donizetti carrying mainland Greece Campioni later executed Fascist authorities defending island British units landed Leros Kos joining Italian garrisons countering German invasion carried 22nd Air Landing Division mediocre coordination better German efficiency air supremacy led German victory capture islands Kos fell the 4th of October 2,500 Italian 600 British prisoners taken 96 Italian officers including commander Felice Leggio executed Leros defended 7,600-strong Italian garrison reinforced 4,500 British soldiers resisted much longer weeks continuous bombing the 12th of November 2,700 German
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Common questions
What was Operation Achse and when did it begin?
Operation Achse began on the 8th of September 1943 as a German campaign to disarm Italian forces following Italy's armistice to the Allies. The operation involved rapid military actions across central northern Italy, the Balkans, and the Ionian Islands starting immediately after Field Marshal Kesselring received orders.
Who led the German forces during Operation Achse in Italy?
Field Marshal Albert Kesselring commanded Axis forces in southern Italy while Field Marshal Erwin Rommel led Army Group B in central northern Italy. Both commanders executed plans to neutralize Italian units and capture strategic locations including Rome, Naples, and various islands.
How many Italian soldiers were captured or killed during Operation Achse?
German forces captured approximately 950,000 Italian soldiers across all theaters with over 402,000 sent home and hundreds of thousands interned in Germany. Casualties included executions of officers in Albania and Greece plus deaths from starvation among dispersed troops in winter 1943-1944.
Where did the main fighting occur during Operation Achse?
Major combat zones included Rome where paratroopers attacked on the 8th of September 1943, the Balkan region covering Slovenia Dalmatia Croatia Bosnia Herzegovina Montenegro Albania and Greece, and the Ionian Islands including Crete Rhodes Kos and Leros. Fighting continued until November 1943 when German forces secured control over most territories.
Why did Italian forces fail to resist Operation Achse effectively?
Italian units failed due to lack of clear orders confusion among commanders and absence of Allied support for peripheral garrisons. Many divisions disintegrated quickly while others surrendered without resistance leaving German forces to occupy entire regions by mid-September 1943.