Engineering
The Great Pyramid of Giza stands as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil engineers. This massive structure was built using three of the six simple machines: the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever. These tools were known in the ancient Near East since prehistoric times. The wheel, along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East. It was used in a simple balance scale and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology. The earliest evidence of pulleys dates back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC. Ancient Egypt also utilized these mechanisms during the Twelfth Dynasty between 1991 and 1802 BC. The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period from 911 to 609 BC. Imhotep is the earliest civil engineer known by name. He designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630, 2611 BC. Other monuments like the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria were important engineering achievements of their time. They were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the father of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years using a model water wheel to determine ways to increase efficiency. He introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Smeaton made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. He designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse between 1755 and 1759. In this project he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime which sets under water. He developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His work led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement. The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders provided pressurized air for blast furnaces. This lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. Higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces. These innovations lowered the cost of iron making horse railways and iron bridges practical. Henry Cort patented the puddling process in 1784 producing large scale quantities of wrought iron. James Beaumont Neilson patented hot blast in 1828 greatly lowering the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. John Wilkinson invented his boring machine which is considered the first machine tool. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century.
The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. The first PhD in engineering awarded in the United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates. That number increased to 43 per year in 1875. By 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical fields. No chair of applied mechanism existed at Cambridge until 1875. No chair of engineering existed at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included experiments by Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, and Georg Ohm. The electric telegraph was invented in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz gave rise to the field of electronics in the late 19th century. Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes. By 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals created a new industry dedicated to developing chemical plants. Aeronautical engineering traces its origins back to aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century. Sir George Cayley's work has been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers extensive development occurred through military aircraft used in World War I.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design software. It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with digital mockup allows engineers to create models that can be analyzed without making expensive physical prototypes. These systems allow products and components to be checked for flaws and assess fit and assembly. Engineers study ergonomics and analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses and temperatures. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with product data management software. Computer-aided manufacturing software generates CNC machining instructions. Electronic designers use EDA for printed circuit board and circuit schematics. Architecture, engineering and construction software serves civil engineering needs. In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management. Computers generate models of fundamental physical processes which are solved using numerical methods. Solutions to flow require modelling of combined effects of fluid flow and heat equations. A computer simulation shows high velocity air flow around a Space Shuttle orbiter during re-entry.
Engineers typically follow a code of ethics that favors honesty and integrity while being dedicated to public safety and welfare. Cicero's Creed translates as the health or safety or welfare of the people shall be the supreme law. This slogan is now considered the original engineer's code of ethics. The National Society of Professional Engineers established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members. In Canada engineers wear the Iron Ring as a symbol and reminder of obligations associated with their profession. Engineering tasks involve finding optimal solutions based on constraints with testing and simulations prior to production. When a deployed product fails forensic engineering determines what went wrong in order to find a fix. Consequences of failure may vary from minor cost of machine breakdown to large loss of life in accidents involving aircraft. Large stationary structures like buildings and dams can suffer catastrophic failures due to miscalculations or miscommunication. Faulty computer software can also play a role in these disasters. Engineers take on responsibility for producing designs that will perform well and not harm people except those employed in specific areas of arms industry.
Modern medicine replaces several body functions through use of artificial organs and devices such as brain implants and pacemakers. Fields of bionics and medical bionics study synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying. They are dedicated to emulating many functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. Substantial interdisciplinary interactions exist between engineering and medicine. Systems Biology applies concepts of systems engineering to study complex biological systems. It uses iteration between computational modelling and experimentation. The heart functions much like a pump while the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers. The brain produces electrical signals. These similarities led to development of biomedical engineering using concepts from both disciplines. Engineering research employs semi-empirical methods foreign to pure scientific research. Scientists try to understand nature while engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention to embody ideas in concrete terms. Physics is an exploratory science seeking knowledge of principles while engineering uses knowledge for practical applications. A physicist would typically require additional training to do an engineer's job. PhD physicists specializing in sectors of engineering physics are titled Technology officer or R&D Engineer.
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Common questions
Who was the earliest civil engineer known by name?
Imhotep is the earliest civil engineer known by name. He designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630, 2611 BC.
When did John Smeaton design the third Eddystone Lighthouse?
John Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse between 1755 and 1759. In this project he pioneered the use of hydraulic lime which sets under water.
What year did the United States Census first list the occupation of engineer?
The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of engineer for the first time with a count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865.
Which simple machines were used to build the Great Pyramid of Giza?
This massive structure was built using three of the six simple machines: the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever. These tools were known in the ancient Near East since prehistoric times.
Who invented the screw among the simple machines?
The screw first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period from 911 to 609 BC. It is the last of the simple machines to be invented.