Dowry

• 1. Defining The Transfer

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  A dowry is a payment such as land, property, money, livestock, or a commercial asset that is paid by the bride's family to the groom or his family at the time of marriage. This transfer establishes a type of conjugal fund intended to provide financial security in widowhood or against a negligent husband. It may also go toward establishing a marital household with furnishings like linens and furniture. The practice contrasts sharply with bride price, which flows from the groom to the bride's family, and dower, which is property settled on the bride herself by the groom. In ancient Babylon, the Code of Hammurabi described this custom as already existing even in its earliest records. Daughters did not normally inherit any of their father's estate but received a dowry instead. This system ensured lifetime security for the woman while keeping her property separate from her husband's assets.

• 2. Plough And Devolution

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  Anthropologist Jack Goody linked dowry systems to intensive plough agriculture through his comparative study using the Ethnographic Atlas. His research showed that societies practicing diverging devolution transmitted property to children regardless of sex. This pattern spanned Eurasian regions from Japan to Ireland. These cultures differed significantly from Sub-Saharan African societies that practiced homogeneous inheritance where property went only to children of the same sex as the holder. Goody noted that sexual division of labor varied between intensive plough agriculture and extensive shifting horticulture. In sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation occurred, most work was done by women. These societies gave brideprice as compensation for the loss of female labor. Plough agriculture farming became largely men's work where dowry was given. Private property developed alongside monogamous marriage to keep wealth within the nuclear family. Close family members preferred each other as partners to maintain property groups. Stanley J. Tambiah later argued Goody's thesis remained pertinent in North India despite requiring local modification. He pointed out that dowry in North India partially functioned as a bride's conjugal fund but also funded the groom's joint family. When parents died and the joint family partitioned, this jointly held wealth returned to the married couple.

• 3. Ancient Codes And Customs

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  The Code of Hammurabi in ancient Babylon described dowry as an already-existing custom even in its oldest available records. Daughters did not normally inherit any of their father's estate but received a dowry instead. This system ensured lifetime security for the woman while keeping her property separate from her husband's assets. Her dowry was administered by her husband as part of family assets yet legally had to remain distinct. The wife was entitled to her dowry at her husband's death if she died childless it reverted to her family. In archaic Greece, the usual practice involved giving a bride price called hednon before dowries emerged during the classical period around 5th century B.C. A husband held certain property rights in his wife's dowry though she might bring additional property beyond the dowry itself. Roman law recognized two types of dowry: dos profectitia given by the father or dos adventitia from others. All property of the wife which was not dowry continued to be her own property called parapherna. In China, dowry ranged from land and jewelry to household items like sewing equipment. Dowry served as the only way assets transferred to daughters since family property went equally to sons only. Women often sold this property for cash to overcome hard economic times or needs of children.

• 4. European Wealth And Law

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  Dowry was widely practiced across Europe until the early modern era with vast inheritances standard for aristocratic brides. The Portuguese crown gave two cities in India and Morocco as dowry to the British Crown in 1661 when King Charles II married Catherine of Braganza. In England, the Salic law requiring female disinheritance did not apply allowing single women many rights men held. Coverture introduced Norman changes to common law in the 12th century requiring property of a wife to be held in husband's name. If the husband died first there existed a widows dowry of one third of the husband's lands at time of marriage. Thirteenth-century court records filled with disputes over dowries showed how complex the law became. William Shakespeare used such events in King Lear where Cordelia lost a suitor due to lack of dowry. In Victorian England dowries viewed by upper class as early payment of daughter's inheritance. Single women held rights equivalent to men though marriage affected their property status differently than on European continent. Russia saw land dowries common through 19th century with Domostroy advice book suggesting setting aside property for dowry purposes. Romania excluded dowered girls from family inheritance leading to increased nuclear family cohesion between 1750 and 1830s.

• 5. South Asian Strains

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  Dowry is called Dahez in Hindi across India yet remains widespread despite prohibition under Dowry Prohibition Act 1961. Payment puts great financial strain on bride's families while continuing unchecked among all religions. Indian Muslims call dowry jahez classified into essential articles for conjugal life plus valuable goods settled after bargaining. Dowry-murder persists as killing of wife for insufficient dowry following series of prior domestic abuses. Section 498A of Indian Penal Code required automatic arrest if wife complained but Supreme Court ruled arrests needed magistrate approval in 2014. Bangladesh transitioned from bride price pawn to dowry joutuk beginning in 1960s replacing traditional customs entirely. Between 0.6 and 2.8 brides per year per 100,000 women die because of dowry-related violence there. Acid throwing concentrated on bride's face causes disfigurement and social isolation used by unhappy families. Pakistan saw 84% believe dowry plays important role though values rose significantly in recent decades. Rural Pakistan maintains lower dowry values around 12 percent household annual expenses with bride maintaining control theoretically. Nepal enacted Social Customs and Practices Act outlawing dowry in 2009 without known enforcement cases.

• 6. Global Regional Variations

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  Afghanistan calls dowry Jehez separate from Mahr sherbaha or brideprice locally called walwar toyana qalyn. Large dowries sometimes expected emptying houses so daughter may make grand show at wedding. Items include embroidery land money jewelry necklaces pazab shoes shawls carpets bedding furniture crockery mirrors clocks. Transfer happens one day before wedding via ritual ceremony adopting longest residential route for community viewing. Turkey uses çeyiz property given couple at marriage different from Mahr paid groom to bride. Displayed before marriage examined by women particularly from groom's family if unsatisfied wedding cancelled. Egypt practices Gehaz observed rural urban negotiated between families years before betrothal. Many girls take jobs save money meet expected demands. Morocco splits Sadaq into naqd cash kali remainder meeting Islamic requirement. Shura far exceeds kali al-sadaq creating large wealth transfer from bride's family. Bosnia knows oprema property parents give bride including kitchenware decorative items gold jewelry major economic burden. Serbia medieval exposure came Byzantines Ottoman era non-existent communist regime outlawed though possibly survived Romani population.

• 7. Femicide And Response

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  Disputes related to dowry result in violence against women including killings and acid attacks according to Amnesty International. UNICEF notes dowry helps perpetuate child marriage while World Health Organization expresses concern for dowry-related femicide citing study by Virendra Kumar. Estimates vary widely ranging 600 to 750 homicides annually to 25,000 with official government records suggesting 7,618 deaths in 2006. About 4.6% total crimes against women India were dowry death-related another 1.9% violation Dowry Prohibition Act. Dowry death rate about 0.7 women per 100,000 every year from 1998 to 2009. Rakhshinda Perveen states thousands of dowry-related bride burning cases Pakistan yet few prosecutions rare convictions. Kirti Singh considers dowry cause consequence son preference inevitably leading discrimination areas daughters vulnerable various forms violence. Girls unwanted sex-selective abortion parents abandon mistreat after born. Bangladesh saw rise expected size dowries recent decades middle class growing supporting family advancement mobilizing resources. Violence property claims disputes frequent divorce. Pakistan passed West Pakistan Dowry Prohibition Display Act 1967 Dowry Bridal Gifts Restriction Act 1976.