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Plough: the story on HearLore | HearLore
Plough
In the third millennium before the Common Era, a tool was not merely an object of labor but a participant in a cosmic argument. The Sumerian disputation poem known as the Debate between the hoe and the plough personified these instruments, pitting the ancient hoe against the newer plough in a verbal contest over which was superior for the survival of civilization. The plough, representing the power of animal-drawn agriculture, argued that it could turn the soil more efficiently and support larger populations, while the hoe, representing the older method of hand-tilling, defended its simplicity and suitability for rocky or uneven terrain. This literary artifact reveals that the transition from hoe to plough was not just a technological shift but a cultural and philosophical struggle that defined the early agricultural societies of Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. The poem itself, dating back to approximately 2500 BC, suggests that the plough was already a symbol of progress and power, capable of transforming the landscape in ways the hoe could not. The debate was not merely about efficiency but about the very nature of human interaction with the earth, a theme that would echo through millennia of agricultural history.
From Ard to Mouldboard
The evolution of the plough began with the ard, a simple scratch plough that cut a shallow furrow into the soil without turning it over. This early device, dating back to the 6th millennium BC, was pulled by domesticated oxen in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilisation, marking the first time animals were harnessed to assist in farming. The ard was a bow-shaped tool with a pointed share that dragged through the topsoil, creating a narrow trench suitable for cereal crops. However, it left strips of undisturbed earth between furrows, necessitating cross-ploughing to prepare fields effectively. This method was ideal for the light, loamy soils of the Nile Delta and the Fertile Crescent but struggled in the heavy, clay-rich soils of Northern Europe. The invention of the mouldboard plough, which appeared in China during the Han Empire in the 1st and 2nd century AD, revolutionized agriculture by turning the soil over completely. This heavy iron plough, with its curved mouldboard, lifted the sod and deposited it upside down, burying weeds and crop remains while bringing fresh nutrients to the surface. The mouldboard plough was so effective that it enabled the cultivation of previously unusable lands, leading to population growth and the rise of the manorial system in Northern Europe by the 10th century AD.
The Iron Age of Ploughs
The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed a metallurgical revolution that transformed the plough from a fragile wooden tool into a robust machine capable of conquering the toughest soils. In 1730, Joseph Foljambe of Rotherham, England, introduced the Rotherham plough, which covered the mouldboard with iron, making it lighter and more durable than previous designs. This innovation was followed by Robert Ransome's chilled casting process in 1789, which produced self-sharpening ploughshares that could withstand the abrasion of rocky soils. James Small further refined the design by casting the plough from a single piece of iron, eliminating the need for multiple parts that could break under stress. The most significant breakthrough came in 1837 when John Deere, an Illinois blacksmith, introduced the steel plough. Deere's polished steel mouldboard could cut through the sticky, non-sandy soils of the American Midwest, which had previously been considered unsuitable for farming. This innovation opened up vast tracts of land for cultivation, fueling the expansion of agriculture across the United States. The steel plough was so effective that it could work soil in areas previously thought impossible to farm, leading to a dramatic increase in food production and the settlement of the American frontier.
When did the Sumerian debate between the hoe and the plough take place?
The Sumerian debate between the hoe and the plough took place in the third millennium before the Common Era, with the poem dating back to approximately 2500 BC. This literary artifact personified the instruments to argue over which was superior for the survival of civilization. The text suggests the plough was already a symbol of progress and power at that time.
What was the first type of plough used in ancient Mesopotamia?
The first type of plough used in ancient Mesopotamia was the ard, a simple scratch plough that cut a shallow furrow into the soil without turning it over. This early device dates back to the 6th millennium BC and was pulled by domesticated oxen. The ard was a bow-shaped tool with a pointed share that dragged through the topsoil to create a narrow trench suitable for cereal crops.
Who invented the steel plough and when was it introduced?
John Deere, an Illinois blacksmith, introduced the steel plough in 1837. Deere's polished steel mouldboard could cut through the sticky, non-sandy soils of the American Midwest, which had previously been considered unsuitable for farming. This innovation opened up vast tracts of land for cultivation and fueled the expansion of agriculture across the United States.
How did the mouldboard plough change the social structure of Northern Europe?
The mouldboard plough required four to eight oxen or horses to pull it, which led to the rise of the manorial system in Northern Europe by the 10th century AD. This necessity for cooperation meant that multiple households worked together to cultivate the land, fostering the prevalence of corporations in medieval Europe. The heavy plough also led to farming being seen as men's work due to the physical strength required to operate it.
What is the function of the chisel plough developed in the late 20th century?
The chisel plough loosens and aerates the soil while leaving crop residue on top to reduce the effects of soil compaction. This type of plough is considered more sustainable than the mouldboard plough because it maintains high surface residue levels and reduces the risk of wind and water erosion. It helps to break up ploughpan and hardpan without turning the soil over completely.
The 19th century brought about a new era of mechanization with the introduction of steam power to ploughing. In 1850, John Fowler, an English agricultural engineer, developed the balance plough, which was pulled by cables across fields using pairs of steam engines. This system allowed for continuous ploughing without the need to turn the plough at the end of each row, significantly increasing efficiency. The balance plough was a marvel of engineering, with two sets of facing ploughs arranged so that when one was in the ground, the other was lifted in the air. When the plough reached the edge of the field, the other engine pulled the opposite cable, and the plough tilted, putting the other set of shares into the ground. This innovation was so successful that it penetrated the monopoly of English companies on the world market, with J.Kemna of Eastern Prussia becoming a leading producer of steam-powered ploughs. The steam engine also enabled the development of the stump-jump plough, invented in 1876 by Australian brothers Richard Bowyer Smith and Clarence Herbert Smith. This plough used a moveable weight to hold the ploughshare in position, allowing it to jump over tree stumps and rocks without breaking its harness or linkage. The stump-jump plough was designed to break up new farming land that contained tree stumps and rocks expensive to remove, making it possible to cultivate previously unusable land.
The Modern Plough and Conservation Tillage
In the 20th century, the plough evolved into a highly sophisticated machine, with modern ploughs being multiply reversible and mounted on tractors with three-point linkages. These ploughs can have from two to as many as seven mouldboards, and semi-mounted ploughs can have as many as 18. The tractor's hydraulics are used to lift and reverse the implement and to adjust furrow width and depth, allowing for precise control over the ploughing process. The development of the chisel plough in the late 20th century marked a shift towards conservation tillage, which aims to minimize soil disruption and erosion. The chisel plough loosens and aerates the soil while leaving crop residue on top, reducing the effects of soil compaction and helping to break up ploughpan and hardpan. This type of plough is considered more sustainable than the mouldboard plough, as it maintains high surface residue levels and reduces the risk of wind and water erosion. The mole plough, another innovation, allows under-drainage to be installed without trenches, breaking up deep impermeable soil layers that impede plant growth. These modern ploughs are designed to work in harmony with the environment, promoting soil health and sustainability while maintaining high levels of productivity.
The Social Impact of the Plough
The introduction of the mouldboard plough had profound social implications, transforming the nature of farming from a solitary activity to a communal effort. In Northern Europe, the heavy plough required four to eight oxen, or later horses, to pull it through the soil, which was more than a typical peasant household could muster on its own. This necessity for cooperation led to the rise of the manorial system, where multiple households worked together to cultivate the land. Historian William H. McNeill suggested that the experience of cooperation with non-family members as a consequence of mouldboard tillage was conducive to the prevalence of the corporation in medieval Europe. Peasants who engaged in this kind of work, including those who migrated to towns, were used to the idea of entering into agreements with people outside of their family and more readily formed corporations. The plough also led to farming being seen as men's work, because of the weight of the instrument and the physical strength required to operate it. This gendered division of labor had lasting effects on the social structure of medieval Europe, shaping the roles of men and women in agricultural society.
The Plough in Literature and Culture
The plough has long been a symbol of human ingenuity and the struggle to master the natural world, appearing in some of the oldest surviving pieces of written literature. The Sumerian debate between the hoe and the plough, dating back to the 3rd millennium BC, is one of the earliest examples of personification in literature, where tools are given voices and personalities to argue their merits. This literary tradition continued through the ages, with the plough appearing in various forms of art, literature, and folklore. In the 13th century, depictions of ploughing scenes can be found in the burial chamber of Sennedjem, an ancient Egyptian official, showing the use of the ard in daily life. The plough also appears in the Akkadian Empire seal, circa 2200 BC, illustrating the importance of agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia. The cultural significance of the plough extends beyond its practical use, symbolizing the transition from a nomadic to a settled lifestyle and the development of complex societies. The plough has been a constant companion to humanity, evolving from a simple wooden tool to a sophisticated machine, yet its fundamental purpose remains the same: to turn the soil and prepare it for the planting of seeds.
The Future of Ploughing
As the 21st century progresses, the plough continues to evolve, adapting to new challenges and technologies. The development of precision agriculture, which uses GPS and other advanced technologies to optimize ploughing, is one of the most significant advancements in recent years. This technology allows farmers to plough with greater precision, reducing waste and increasing efficiency. The use of no-till and low-till methods, which minimize soil disruption and erosion, is becoming more widespread, as farmers seek to maintain soil health and sustainability. The mole plough, which allows under-drainage to be installed without trenches, is another innovation that is gaining popularity, particularly in areas with heavy soils. The future of ploughing also includes the development of autonomous ploughs, which can operate without human intervention, using sensors and AI to navigate fields and adjust to changing conditions. These innovations promise to make ploughing more efficient, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, ensuring that the plough remains a vital tool for agriculture in the years to come.