Diocletianic Persecution
Diocletian assumed power on the 20th of November 284 as a religious conservative faithful to the traditional Roman cult. He preferred older Olympian gods over any new cult of his own. A panegyric to Maximian declared that Diocletian had heaped altars and statues upon the gods with his own name and image. This connection between god and emperor helped legitimize imperial claims to power. The Tetrarchy system ruled by four emperors was styled as a renewal of traditional Roman values. It promised a return to the Golden Age of Rome after the anarchic third century. Unity in worship was central to Diocletian's religious policies. He built temples for Isis and Sarapis at Rome and a temple to Sol in Italy. Native Egyptian deities saw no revival under this regime. The cult of Saturn remained neglected while Jupiter and Hercules were pervasive in imperial iconography. Diocletian did not insist on exclusive worship but favored gods who provided safety for the whole empire. His activist stance made him unusual among earlier cautious emperors. Under his rule coinage, taxation, architecture, law and history were all radically reconstructed. The reformation of the empire's moral fabric included eliminating religious minorities. Christians had been distancing themselves from their Jewish heritage throughout their history. They refused to observe public festivals or take part in the imperial cult. Traditional Roman religion was interwoven into the fabric of society yet Christians shied away from the public sphere. Their practices were deeply threatening to traditional mores. Justin Martyr tells of a pagan husband who denounced his Christian wife. Tertullian records children disinherited for becoming Christians. Tacitus wrote that Christians showed hatred of the human race. Among the credulous they were thought to use black magic in pursuit of revolutionary aims. Pagan priests believed their ceremonies were hindered by the presence of Christians. They feared their arts would be brought to nought if attendance dwindled.
On the 23rd of February 303 Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed. Its scriptures were burned and its treasures seized. This date was the feast of Terminalia for Terminus the god of boundaries. It marked the day they would terminate Christianity. The next day Diocletian's first edict against the Christians was published. The key targets were senior Christian clerics and Christians' property. The edict prohibited Christians from assembling for worship across the empire. It ordered destruction of liturgical books and places of worship. Christians tried to retain scriptures as far as possible though some gave them up without sin. They were deprived of the right to petition courts making them subjects for judicial torture. Christian senators, equestrians, decurions, veterans and soldiers were deprived of their ranks. Imperial freedmen were re-enslaved. Diocletian requested the edict be pursued without bloodshed but local judges often enforced executions. Galerius recommended burning alive which became a common method in the East. A man named Eutius tore down the posted edict shouting about Gothic triumphs. He was arrested tortured and burned alive becoming the edict's first martyr. In summer 303 following rebellions in Melitene and Syria a second edict was published. It ordered arrest and imprisonment of all bishops and priests. Prisons began to fill so quickly that ordinary criminals had to be released. On the 20th of November 303 Diocletian declared a general amnesty allowing imprisoned clergy freedom if they sacrificed. Wardens often managed to obtain nominal compliance through torture or deception. Some clergy sacrificed willingly while others did so on pain of death. In 304 the fourth edict ordered all persons men women and children to offer collective sacrifice. If they refused they were to be executed. This last edict was not enforced at all in Constantius's domains. It remained applicable in the East until the Edict of Milan by Constantine and Licinius in 313.
Enforcement of persecutory edicts varied significantly across the Roman Empire. In Constantius's realm covering Britain and Gaul persecution was only lightly enforced. Lactantius stated destruction of church buildings was the worst thing that came to pass there. Eusebius explicitly denied any churches were destroyed in both his Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine. A group of bishops declared Gaul immune from persecutions under Constantius. The second third and fourth edicts seem not to have been enforced in the West at all. In Maximian's domain including Italy Spain and Africa persecution was firmly enforced. Africa's political elite insisted that the persecution be fulfilled completely. Anullinus proconsul of Africa expanded the edict compelling Christians to sacrifice to gods. Governor Valerius Florus enforced the same policy in Numidia during summer or autumn 303. He called for days of incense burning where Christians would lose their lives if they did not comply. African martyrs included Saturninus and the Martyrs of Abitinae executed on the 12th of February 304 in Carthage. The martyrs of Milevis also perished during this period. In the East under Diocletian and Galerius provisions were pursued with more fervor than anywhere else. Peter Davies tabulated total martyrdoms pointing to heavier persecution under Diocletian than under Galerius. Before end of February 303 a fire destroyed part of imperial palace at Nicomedia. Galerius convinced Diocletian culprits were Christian conspirators though no responsible party was found. Executions followed until at least the 24th of April 303 when six individuals including bishop Anthimus were decapitated. A second fire appeared sixteen days after the first. Galerius left city declaring it unsafe while Diocletian soon followed. Lactantius blamed Galerius's allies for setting fires while Constantine later attributed them to lightning from heaven.
The persecution encouraged development of Donatism a schismatic movement forbidding compromise with Roman government or traditor bishops. One key moment occurred in Carthage in 304 when Christians from Abitinae were imprisoned. Friends and relatives visiting encountered resistance from a local mob sent by Mensurius bishop of city. The group was harassed beaten whipped and food scattered on ground. In 311 Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage but opponents charged his traditio made him unworthy. They declared support for another candidate named Majorinus. Majorinus's successor Donatus would give dissident movement its name. By time Constantine took over province African Church was deeply divided. Donatists would not be reconciled to Catholic Church until after 411. In Rome bishop Marcellinus died in 304 during persecution though how he died remains disputed. Eusebius wrote Marcellinus was brought away by persecution possibly referring to martyrdom or flight. Some assert Marcellinus was a traditor who sacrificed to pagan gods. The tale was embroidered in fifth-century forgery Council of Sinuessa. Two factions diverged separating lapsed Christians from rigorists who refused compromise. These groups clashed in street fights eventually leading to murders. Marcellus purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records and removed his name from official list. He was banished from city dying in exile on the 16th of January 309. Office remained vacant almost three years until Maxentius permitted election of Miltiades on the 2nd of July 311. Outside Rome fewer details exist about progress and effects of persecution in Italy. Acta Eulpi records martyrdom of Euplus of Catania arrested the 29th of April 304 and martyred August 12. Bishop Chrysogonus of Aquileia executed during period while Cantius Cantianus and Cantianilla also perished there.
In East persecution officially discontinued on the 30th of April 311 though martyrdoms in Gaza continued until the 4th of May. Edict of Serdica issued in 311 in Sofia Bulgaria ended Diocletianic persecution in East. Galerius proclaimed this while on deathbed giving Christians rights to exist freely under law. Lactantius preserves Latin text describing it as edict while Eusebius provides Greek translation suggesting imperial letter. Document seems promulgated only in Galerius's provinces. It stated Christians should return to good sense but did not admit error in past actions. Certain early twentieth-century historians declared edict definitively nullified legal formula non licet esse Christianos. Seventeenth-century historian Tillemont called edict insignificant while late twentieth-century historian Timothy Barnes cautioned against overestimating novelty. Galerius's legislation brought to East rights Christians already possessed in Italy and Africa. Within seven months of proclamation Maximinus resumed persecution continuing until 313 shortly before his death. At meeting between Licinius and Constantine in Milan February 313 two emperors drafted universal peace terms. Terms posted by victorious Licinius at Nicomedia on the 13th of June 313 became known as Edict of Milan. It commended free unrestricted opportunity of religious worship to Christians. Regulation made that each one might have free opportunity to worship as he pleased. Later ages took document calling it Edict of Milan though original text offered more comprehensive acceptance than Galerius's earlier pronouncement.
Modern historians continue debating whether Christian sources exaggerated scale of suffering during Great Persecution. Some scholars assert position is in error claiming persecution truly catastrophic despite limited evidence. Edward Gibbon criticized Christian accounts during Enlightenment with political anticlerical and secular tenor of period. G.E.M. de Ste. Croix attempted determine whether Christian sources exaggerated scope but disagreements persist. Peter Davies tabulated total martyrdoms for article in Journal of Theological Studies relying on collections of acta incomplete and partially reliable. Historian Simon Corcoran criticizes Davies over-reliance on dubious martyr acts dismissing conclusions entirely. Eusebius recognized faults in own account lamenting how could one number multitude martyrs in each province especially those in Africa. His coverage uneven providing only bare generalities at bloody end persecutions. Data calculate figures nearly non-existent though historian Keith Hopkins gave crude estimates Christian population grew from 1.1 million in 250 to 6 million by 300 about 10% empire total population. Christians expanded into countryside where never numerous before large churches prominent certain major cities throughout empire. Church Nicomedia sat hill overlooking imperial palace representing not absolute growth but increasing affluence community. In areas Christians influential traditional deities losing credibility unknown support existed aristocracy. Lower classes demonstrated little enthusiasm shown earlier persecutions no longer believed slanderous accusations popular first second centuries. Long-established Church became accepted part lives yet highest ranks imperial administration contained men ideologically opposed toleration Christians. Porphyry philosopher wrote fifteen-volume work Against Christians expressing shock rapid expansion Christianity revised opinions Jesus questioning exclusion rich Kingdom Heaven permissiveness demons residing pigs bodies. He unfavorably compared Jesus Apollonius Tyana holding Christians blasphemed worshiping human being rather Supreme God behaved treasonably forsaking traditional Roman cult.
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Common questions
When did Diocletian assume power and what was his religious stance?
Diocletian assumed power on the 20th of November 284 as a religious conservative faithful to the traditional Roman cult. He preferred older Olympian gods over any new cult of his own.
What happened to Christians during the persecution starting in February 303?
On the 23rd of February 303 Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed. Its scriptures were burned and its treasures seized while senior clerics lost their ranks and property.
How did enforcement of persecutory edicts vary across the Roman Empire?
In Constantius's realm covering Britain and Gaul persecution was only lightly enforced or not enforced at all. In Maximian's domain including Italy Spain and Africa persecution was firmly enforced with executions occurring throughout summer 303.
When did the Edict of Milan end the Great Persecution officially?
The Edict of Milan posted by Licinius at Nicomedia on the 13th of June 313 became known as universal peace terms for Christians. It commended free unrestricted opportunity of religious worship to Christians after Galerius discontinued persecution in the East on the 30th of April 311.
Who were some notable martyrs executed during the Diocletianic Persecution?
A man named Eutius was arrested tortured and burned alive becoming the edict's first martyr. African martyrs included Saturninus and the Martyrs of Abitinae executed on the 12th of February 304 in Carthage.