Company rule in India

• 1. Origins And Expansion

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  The year 1757 marked a turning point when the East India Company defeated Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, at the Battle of Plassey. This victory allowed Robert Clive to install Mir Jafar as a puppet ruler who held the support of the Company. The Company had gained its first foothold in India with a factory established in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast in 1611. A second factory followed in Surat in 1612 after Mughal Emperor Jahangir granted permission. By 1640, a third factory appeared in Madras following similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler. Bombay island was leased by the Company in 1668 as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to Charles II. Calcutta emerged as a key factory up the Ganges Delta during the Anglo-Mughal War. The Company consolidated power further through victories like the 1764 Battle of Buxar in Bihar. These battles forced Emperor Shah Alam II to appoint the Company as diwan or revenue collector for Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. By 1773, the Company became de facto ruler over large areas of the lower Gangetic plain. Expansion took two forms: outright annexation of Indian states and subsidiary alliances with local rulers. Annexed regions included Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab in 1801. Delhi fell under direct control in 1803 while Assam joined in 1828. Sindh was annexed in 1843 and Punjab in 1849-1856 under Marquess Dalhousie. Kashmir was sold to the Dogra dynasty of Jammu under the Treaty of Amritsar in 1850. Subsidiary alliances created princely states where Hindu maharajas and Muslim nawabs acknowledged Company hegemony. Prominent examples included Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), and Mysore (1799). The Anglo-Mysore Wars ran from 1766 to 1799 while the Anglo-Maratha Wars lasted from 1772 to 1818.

• 2. Governance And Administration

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  Warren Hastings became the first Governor-General of Fort William on the 20th of October 1773 after the Regulating Act 1773 established his authority. He served until the 1st of February 1785 during a period marked by the Great Bengal Famine of 1770 which killed between seven and ten million people. Lord Cornwallis took office on the 12th of September 1786 and introduced the Cornwallis Code in 1793 alongside the Permanent Settlement. John Shore governed from the 28th of October 1793 to March 1798 when the East India Company Army was reorganized and downsized. Richard Wellesley held power from the 18th of May 1798 to the 30th of July 1805 and saw the Nizam of Hyderabad sign the first subsidiary alliance in 1798. Charles Cornwallis returned briefly for a second term from the 30th of July 1805 to the 5th of October 1805 before dying in Ghazipur. George Hilario Barlow served as locum tenens from the 10th of October 1805 to the 31st of July 1807 during the Vellore Mutiny of the 10th of July 1806. Lord Minto governed from the 31st of July 1807 to the 4th of October 1813 while Marquess Hastings led from the 4th of October 1813 to the 9th of January 1823. The Anglo-Nepal War occurred in 1814 with annexations of Kumaon, Garhwal, and east Sikkim. Lord Amherst ruled from the 1st of August 1823 to the 13th of March 1828 during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1823-26). William Bentinck governed from the 4th of July 1828 to the 22nd of April 1834 when Bengal Sati Regulation was enacted in 1829. Lord Auckland held office from the 4th of March 1836 to the 28th of February 1842 during which Post Offices were established in 1837. Lord Ellenborough served from the 28th of February 1842 to June 1844 when Sindh was annexed in 1843. Henry Hardinge governed from the 23rd of July 1844 to the 12th of January 1848 during the First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46). Marquess Dalhousie ruled from the 12th of January 1848 to the 28th of February 1856 when construction began on Indian Railways in 1850. Charles Canning served from the 28th of February 1856 to the 1st of November 1858 during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which lasted from the 10th of May 1857 to the 20th of June 1858. The Regulating Act 1773 required Company servants to submit all communications regarding civil, military, and revenue matters for scrutiny by the British government. Pitt's India Act established a Board of Control consisting of six members including one Secretary of State and the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Charter Act 1813 renewed the company's charter but terminated its monopoly except regarding tea and trade with China. Saint Helena Act 1833 revoked the company's monopoly in China trade making it an agent for administering British India.

• 3. Revenue Systems And Economy

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  The Great Bengal Famine struck between 1769 and 1770 killing between seven and ten million people or between a quarter and third of the presidency population. Warren Hastings took over revenue collection directly in the Bengal Presidency in 1772 establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and Patna. Lord Cornwallis promulgated the Permanent Settlement in 1793 fixing land tax at £3 million according to 1789-90 prices. This settlement recognized rajas and taluqdars as zamindars who collected rent from peasants while paying revenue to the Company. Up to one-third of zamindari lands were auctioned during the first two decades following the Permanent Settlement due to defaults. Brahmin and Kayastha employees often became new owners having good grasp of the new system. Thomas Munro promoted the ryotwari system which settled land-revenue directly with peasant farmers called ryots. James Mill formulated Indian revenue policy between 1819 and 1830 based on David Ricardo's Law of Rent. Taxation amounted to nine-tenths of the rent in early 19th century gradually falling afterwards. Land revenue settlements constituted major administrative activity involving surveying measuring plots assessing quality recording landed rights. Between years 1814 and 1859 government ran debts in 33 years despite land revenue being single most important source of government revenue roughly half overall revenue middle 19th century. Bengal money supply greatly diminished period 1760-1800 closing local mints standardizing coinage adding economic downturn. India changed exporter processed goods receiving payment bullion becoming exporter raw materials buyer manufactured goods. Fine cotton silk exported 1750s Europe Asia Africa replaced by raw cotton opium indigo second quarter 19th century. Textile imports grew £5.2 million 1850 to £18.4 million 1896 American Civil War caused demand Indian cotton quadruple prices leading farmers switch quick cash crop. Opium export constituted 40% India exports end second quarter 19th century indigo dye extracted natural indigo grown Bengal northern Bihar. Indigo rebellion occurred 1859-60 ending production Bengal while continuing well into 20th century Bihar Champaran district became testing ground Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi non-violent resistance strategy 1917.

• 4. Military Structure And Mutiny

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  Nawab of Bengal presided justice system himself chief law officer Nawāb Nāzim attended cases qualifying capital punishment headquarters Murshidabad. Deputy Naib Nāzim attended slightly less important cases ordinary lawsuits belonged jurisdiction hierarchy court officials faujdārs muhtasils kotwāls. Zamindars rural overlords hereditary right collect rent peasant farmers also power administer justice little routine oversight required report judgments capital punishment cases Nawāb. Court Directors petitioned King establish Mayor Courts 1726 approved consisting Mayor nine aldermen jurisdiction lawsuits Europeans Fort William Calcutta Madras Bombay. Judgments Mayor Courts disputed appeal respective Presidency government amount disputed greater Rs. 4,000 further appeal King-in-Council. Mayor Courts renewed revised letters patent 1753 Courts Requests introduced lawsuits involving amounts less than Rs. 20 regulated Court Directors East India Company. Company obtained Diwāni Bengal 1765 right not only collect revenue administer civil justice criminal justice Nizāmat Faujdāri remained Nawab prevailing Islamic law place. Warren Hastings arrived Calcutta first Governor-General company Indian dominions resolved overhaul organization particular judicial affairs interior Mofussil diwāni adālats civil courts first instance constituted each district presided European Zilā judges employed company assisted interpretation customary Indian law Hindu pandits Muslim qazis. Registrars Indian commissioners known Sadr Amīns Munsifs appointed small claims supervised provincial civil courts appeal constituted purpose four British judges authority Sadr Diwāni Adālat Chief Civil Court Appeals consisting Governor Presidency Council assisted Indian officers. Provincial nizāmat adālats Provincial courts criminal judicature created interior again consisted Indian court officers pandits qazis supervised officials company. Courts circuit appellate jurisdiction criminal cases usually presided judges civil appellate courts under Sadr Nizāmat Adālat Chief Court Criminal Appeal. Supreme Court created Regulating Act 1773 consisting one Chief Justice three puisne judges chosen barristers supplanted Mayor Court left Court Requests place. Supreme Court exercised all types jurisdiction

• 5. Legal Reforms And Justice

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  region Bengal Bihar Odisha caveat disputed amount excess Rs. 4,000 judgment appealed Privy Council. Civil criminal cases interpreted prosecuted accorded English law Sadr Adālats judges law-officers knowledge English law required proceed according equity justice good conscience unless Hindu Muhammadan law point some Regulation expressly applied. Hastings premature attempt appoint Chief Justice Sir Elijah Impey old schoolmate Winchester bench Sadr Diwāni Adālat complicated situation annulled 1781 parliamentary intervention Declaration Act 1781 exempted Executive Branch jurisdiction Supreme Court recognized independent existence Sadr Adālats subsidiary courts company prohibited Supreme Court any jurisdiction matters revenue Diwāni Regulations Government enacted British Parliament. East India Act 1797 extended jurisdiction Supreme Court province Benares places time being included Bengal Ceded Conquered Provinces 1805 jurisdiction extend west Delhi. Madras Bombay similar course legal changes unfolded Mayor Courts strengthened Recorder's Courts adding legal president bench. Supreme Courts Madras Bombay finally established 1801 1823 respectively Madras Presidency unusual first rely village headmen panchāyats cases involving small claims.

  East India Company dominions India universal public postal service shared regions before 1837 courier services existed connecting important towns respective seats provincial government Presidency towns Fort William Calcutta Fort St George Madras Bombay private individuals payment sparingly allowed use. Situation changed 1837 Act XVII year public post run Company Government established territory India post offices established principal towns postmasters appointed. Postmasters Presidency towns oversaw few provincial post offices additional responsible main postal services between provinces District collectors originally collectors land-tax directed District post offices including local postal services. Postal services required payment cash made advance amount charged usually varying weight distance example charge sending letter Calcutta Bombay one rupee Calcutta Agra 12 annas three-quarter rupee each tola three-eighths ounce. Commission appointed 1850 evaluate Indian postal system received recommendations Act XVII 1837 superseded Indian Postal Act 1854 entire postal department headed Director-General duties Postmaster-General set apart Presidency Postmaster former administered postal system larger provinces such Bombay Presidency North-Western Provinces latter attended less important Provinces Ajmer-Merwara major Political Agencies Rajputana. Postage stamps introduced time postal rates fixed weight dependent no longer also distance travelled delivery lowest inland letter rate half anna tola followed one anna tola 2 anna tola great reduction rates 17 years before. Indian Post Office delivered letters newspapers postcards book packets parcels deliveries grew steadily number 1861 three years end Company rule total 889 post offices opened almost 43 million letters over four and a half million newspapers delivered annually. Electric telegraphy became viable mid-century hand signalling obsolete W.B. O'Shaughnessy professor chemistry Calcutta Medical College received permission 1851 conduct trial run telegraph service Calcutta Diamond Harbour along river Hooghly. Four telegraph offices mainly shipping-related business opened along river year telegraph receiver used experiment galvanoscope O'Shaughnessy

• 6. Education And Social Reform

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  design manufactured India. Experiment deemed success year later Governor-General India Lord Dalhousie sought permission Court Directors company construction telegraph lines Calcutta Agra Agra Bombay Agra Peshawar Bombay Madras extending all over 3,050 miles including forty-one offices. Permission soon granted February 1855 proposed telegraph lines constructed used send paid messages. O'Shaughnessy instrument used India early 1857 supplanted Morse instrument. By 1857 telegraph network expanded 4,555 miles lines sixty two offices reached hill station Ootacamund Nilgiri Hills port Calicut southwest coast India. Indian Rebellion 1857 more than seven hundred miles telegraph lines destroyed rebel forces mainly North-Western Provinces East India Company nevertheless able use remaining intact lines warn many outposts impending disturbances. Political value new technology driven home company following year not only destroyed lines rebuilt network expanded further 2,000 miles. O'Shaughnessy experimental set-up 1851-52 consisted overhead underground lines latter included underwater ones crossed two rivers Hooghly Haldi. Overhead line constructed welding uninsulated iron rods feet long 3/8 inch wide end end.