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— CH. 1 · ETYMOLOGY AND EARLY REFERENCES —

Rajput

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  • The word Rājaputra appears in the 7th century Bakhshali manuscript from NWFP, where it refers to a mercenary soldier rather than a king's son. In the 8th century Chachnama of Sindh, the term describes elite horsemen serving under ruler Dahir. A late 11th century inscription from Mount Abu mentions all the rājaputras of the illustrious Rājaputra clan. Kalhana's Rājatarangiī from the 12th century uses rājaputras as mercenary soldiers claiming high status through birth. An inscription from Chittor dated 1301 records three generations of rājaputras holding land.

    B.D Chattopadhyay notes that medieval sources describe rajputras as mixed castes constituting petty chiefs holding estates. The term covers everyone from actual sons of kings to lowest ranking fief holders under the Chalukyas. Under the Chahamanas, the word denotes a prince, while under the Chalukyas it marks the lowest ranking fief holder. Some scholars argue the term was reserved for immediate relatives of kings, but others like BD Chattopadhyay believe it applied to larger groups of high-ranking men.

    From 700 CE, north India's political landscape was dominated by large Kshatriya landowners called thakurs. These included pastoral tribes and central Asian invaders who later became known as Rajputs. Andre Wink observes that military nobility in Sindh referred to as thakurs in the Chachnama and Al-Baladhuri can be seen as Rajputs in their original sense. Vidyapati's Kīrtilatā from 1380 mentions the term among castes inhabiting Jaunpur city.

  • Modern historians agree that Rajputs consisted of miscellaneous groups including Shudra and tribals. Satish Chandra states some were Brahmans who took to warfare, while others came from indigenous or foreign tribes. The community formation resulted from political factors influencing caste mobility, termed Sanskritization or Rajputization by different scholars. Nearly all Rajput clans originated from peasant or pastoral communities according to modern research.

    Alf Hiltebeitel discusses three colonial-era theories about Rajput origins that have been dismissed. British writers characterized Rajputs as descendants of Scythians or Hunas, believing the Agnikula myth concealed foreign origins. They claimed these invaders assimilated into the Kshatriya category during the 6th or 7th century after the Gupta Empire collapsed. D.R. Bhandarkar supported this theory alongside many colonial propagators seeking to legitimize colonial rule.

    C.V. Vaidya promoted an Aryan invasion theory claiming the entire 9th-10th century Indian populace was composed of one race - Aryans unmixed with Shudras or Dravidians. He argued Rajputs originated from Vedic Aryan Kshatriyas of epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata based on attributes like bravery and physical strength. However, Hiltebeitel finds such affinities unconvincing and labels Vaidya's historiography often hopeless. Jai Narayan Asopa theorized Rajputs were Brahmins who became rulers, but his claims are dismissed as far-fetched and unintelligible.

    Recent research suggests Rajputs came from various ethnic backgrounds and varnas. Norman Ziegler notes groups rising to power in North India after Muslim invasions were no longer considered Kshatriyas despite performing similar functions. André Wink states some Rajputs may be Jats by origin. Tanuja Kothiyal points out that Bhils, Mers, Minas, Gujars, Raikas all lay claim to a Rajput past from where they claim to have fallen.

  • Historical indications show groups calling themselves Rajputs settling in the Indo-Gangetic Plain by the 6th century. Epigraphical evidence indicates terms like rajputra and rauta began being used more commonly from the 12th century onwards to denote large numbers of people. Kalhana's Rajtarangini mentions 36 clans existed by the beginning of the 12th century AD. The Varna Ratnakara from 1324 features a list of 72 Rajput clans including Chouhāna, Pamāra, Chandella, Kachchvāha, Guhilot, Gāndhavariyā, Baisvara, and Bhați.

    Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya analyzed inscriptions primarily from Rajasthan and believed the term rajaputra became associated with fortified settlements and kin-based landholding by the 12th century. He argued the title acquired an element of heredity around 1300. Michael B. Bednar studied 11th-14th century inscriptions from western and central India concluding designations were not necessarily hereditary during this period.

    Rajputs remained involved in nomadic pastoralism and cattle trade until much later than popularly believed. Muhnot Nainsi's 17th century chronicles discuss disputes between Rajputs over cattle raids. Folk deities like Pabuji, Mallinath, Gogaji, and Ramdeo protected cattle herding communities. The emergence resulted from gradual change from mobile pastoral groups into landed sedentary ones requiring control over resources for agrarian expansion.

    By the late 16th century, the Rajput class had become genealogically rigid based on blood purity ideas according to Dirk Kolff. Membership was now largely inherited rather than achieved through military achievements. Consolidation of the Mughal Empire meant chiefs no longer engaged in major conflicts with each other, decreasing prestige opportunities through military action and making hereditary prestige more important.

  • Scholars place the emergence of Rajput clans as early as the seventh century AD when they started dominating regions in current day Northern India. Dynasties included Gurjara-Pratiharas, Chahamanas of Shakambhari, Nadol and Jalor, Tomaras of Delhi, Chaulukyas, Paramaras, Gahadavalas, Chandela, Sisodias, and Guhilas. The term Rajput has been used anachronistically for leading martial lineages of 11th and 12th centuries confronting Ghaznavid and Ghurid invaders.

    Rajput family of Mewar under Bappa Rawal fought off Arab generals after Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh. They restricted Arab rule to areas west of Thar desert but failed to recapture Sindh. By 725 AD near Ujjain, Arab invasions were defeated by Bappa Rawal and Nagabhata I. Mahmud Ghaznavi launched successful expeditions against Rajputs from the first quarter of 11th century, demolishing Somnath Temple in 1025 A.D where ruler Bhimdev Solanki fled his capital.

    Muhammad of Ghor expelled Ghaznawids from Lahore in 1186 before invading Rajput domain. Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer led a coalition defeating Ghori near Taraori in 1191. However, he returned with mounted archers and crushed Rajput forces on the same battlefield, fleeing only to be caught near Sirsa and executed by Ghurids. Alauddin Khalji sacked key fortresses including Chittor in 1303 and Ranthambor in 1301.

    Rana Hammir defeated Tughlaq army in Singoli in 1336 CE, recapturing Rajasthan from Delhi Sultanate. Rana Kumbha's grandson Rana Sanga turned Mewar into one of greatest powers in northern India during early 16th century. Sanga defeated Sultans of Gujarat, Malwa and Delhi several times but was defeated at Khanwa through Mughal use of gunpowder unknown in Northern India at that time.

  • From Akbar's rule, Rajput leaders were integrated into Mughal ruling elite through court appointments and matrimonial alliances. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were born from Rajput mothers due to presence of princes in Mughal harem and Rajput officers serving in imperial army. Babur's defeat of a Rajput coalition at Battle of Khanwa is considered turning point in North Indian history.

    Rana Prasad of Amarkot gave refuge to Humayun and his pregnant wife when fleeing India. Young Akbar was born in his fortress. Humayun tried making good relations with zamindars both Hindu and Muslim as strategy engaging local ruling classes. After mid-16th century many Rajput rulers formed close relationships with emperors serving them in different capacities.

    Akbar accomplished 40 marriages for himself, sons and grandsons out of which 17 were Rajput-Mughal alliances. His successors had Rajput mothers though neither Akbar nor successors provided brides to Rajput rulers. Akbar got sisters and daughters married to Timurids and prominent Muslims from central and west Asia. Rana Pratap of Sisodia family made it point of honor not to engage in matrimonial relationships with Mughals claiming to stand apart from other clans who did so.

    Aurangzeb banned all Hindus from carrying weapons and riding horses but exempted Rajputs. Re-imposition of Jaziya tax abolished by Akbar damaged diplomatic policy. Despite imposition, Aurangzeb's army had high proportion of Rajput officers in upper ranks exempted from paying Jaziya. Conflicts commencing early 1680s became contributing factor towards downfall of Mughal empire.

  • In late eighteenth century British East India company initially refused supporting Rajput states considering them weak despite requests from two rulers. Warren Hastings realized alliance benefits in January 1815 noting Jaipur, Jodhpur and Udaipur had been devastated by Scindia, Holkars, Pindari, Ameer Khan and Muhammad Shah Khan. Rajput rulers argued British replaced Mughal Empire as supreme power therefore having responsibility protecting weaker states.

    One by one many Rajput states came under British protection becoming allies - Kota, Udaipur, Bundi, Kishangarh, Bikaner, Jaipur, Pratapgarh, Banswara, Dungarpur, Jaisalmer by 1817-18 and Sirohi by 1823. David Ochterlony broke promise not to interfere claiming interferences would save states from ruin but was removed in 1820 replacing him with Charles Metcalfe. Non-interference remained official policy though Lynn Zastoupil notes British never found it possible or desirable to completely withdraw from interference.

    James Tod impressed by military qualities became unusually enamoured of Rajputs though considered unreliable commentator today. Jason Freitag calls him manifestly biased. Kunwar Singh a Rajput Zamindar was important leader in Bihar region during Indian Rebellion of 1857. Robert Stern points out Rajpur durbar muskeeters and feudal cavalrymen did not participate in 1857 revolt at all though Crispin Bates believes officers had soft corner for rebels fleeing Delhi entering interior areas of then Rajasthan region.

  • The term Rajput denotes cluster of castes clans and lineages vaguely defined without universal consensus on which clans make up community. In medieval Rajasthan word came restricted to certain specific clans based on patrilineal descent and intermarriages while eastern counterparts maintained fluid inclusive nature refusing acknowledgment of identity claimed by Bundelas.

    Several major subdivisions known as vansh delineate claimed descent from various sources generally divided into three primary vansh: Suryavanshi denotes descent from solar deity Surya, Chandravanshi from lunar deity Chandra, Agnivanshi from fire deity Agni. Agnivanshi clans include Parmar, Chaulukya Solanki, Parihar and Chauhan. Lesser-noted vansh include Udayvanshi and Rajvanshi recorded in documents called vamshāavalīis counted among status-legitimizing texts by André Wink.

    Beneath vansh division are smaller subdivisions: kul shakh branch khamp or khanp twig nak twig tip. Marriages within a kul generally disallowed with some flexibility for kul-mates of different gotra lineages. Kul serves as primary identity for many clans each protected by family goddess kuldevi. Lindsey Harlan notes shakhs have become powerful enough functionally kuls in their own right in some cases.

    Rajputs claim Kshatriya or descendants of Kshatriyas but actual status varies greatly ranging from princely lineages to common cultivators. In 1931 census Rajputs comprised 3.7% of British India's population currently region-wise estimates show 35% for Uttarakhand 28% for Himachal Pradesh 9% in Madhya Pradesh 7-8% for Uttar Pradesh 6% for Rajasthan 5% for Gujarat 3.45% for Bihar and 3.4% for Haryana.

  • In 1988 estimated total Rajput population roughly 38 million in Indian subcontinent majority 30 million 79% were Hindus nearly 8 million 19.9% followers of Islam mostly concentrated in Pakistan while slightly less than 200,000 0.5% were Sikhs. In Pakistan census done on linguistic basis harder come across population nationally though Punjab government provides numbers showing Rajputs constitute 32% Kasur District 20% Gujranwala District and 5% Lahore District.

    Female infanticide practiced by Rajputs low ritual status seeking upward mobility as well as high ritual status. Methods included drowning strangulation poisoning Asphyxia drawing umbilical cord over baby face preventing respiration leaving infant die without food giving poison if survived first few hours applying poisonous plants like Datura madar poppy to mother's breast during breastfeeding. Act VIII of 1870 introduced late 19th century curb practice but practical application faced hurdles proving culpability difficult as men employed distance infants killed connivance.

    Sati cases occurred Rajasthan from 1943 to 1987 with 28 cases since 1947 according to Indian scholar. Most famous case Roop Kanwar where 40,000 Rajputs gathered street Jaipur October 1987 supporting her Sati. Pamphlet circulated attacking independent westernized women opposing woman duty worshipping husband demonstrated by practice again affirmed low status women leaders pro-sati movement gained political terms.

    Rajput lifestyle includes martial art form Pari Khanda heavy use swords shields later included folk dances Chhau dance Bihar Jharkhand. Primary chief breaks meeting vassal chiefs khanda nariyal distribution daggers coconuts Karga Shapna adoration sword ritual performed annual Navaratri festival after which Rajput considered free indulge passion rapine revenge.

Common questions

When did the term Rajput first appear in historical records?

The word Rājaputra appears in the 7th century Bakhshali manuscript from NWFP, where it refers to a mercenary soldier rather than a king's son. In the 8th century Chachnama of Sindh, the term describes elite horsemen serving under ruler Dahir.

What are the three primary vansh divisions of Rajput clans?

Several major subdivisions known as vansh delineate claimed descent from various sources generally divided into three primary vansh: Suryavanshi denotes descent from solar deity Surya, Chandravanshi from lunar deity Chandra, Agnivanshi from fire deity Agni. Agnivanshi clans include Parmar, Chaulukya Solanki, Parihar and Chauhan.

How many Rajputs were recorded in the 1931 census of British India?

In 1931 census Rajputs comprised 3.7% of British India's population currently region-wise estimates show 35% for Uttarakhand 28% for Himachal Pradesh 9% in Madhya Pradesh 7-8% for Uttar Pradesh 6% for Rajasthan 5% for Gujarat 3.45% for Bihar and 3.4% for Haryana.

When did female infanticide occur among Rajputs and what methods were used?

Female infanticide practiced by Rajputs low ritual status seeking upward mobility as well as high ritual status. Methods included drowning strangulation poisoning Asphyxia drawing umbilical cord over baby face preventing respiration leaving infant die without food giving poison if survived first few hours applying poisonous plants like Datura madar poppy to mother's breast during breastfeeding.

Which Rajput ruler defeated Tughlaq army in Singoli in 1336 CE?

Rana Hammir defeated Tughlaq army in Singoli in 1336 CE, recapturing Rajasthan from Delhi Sultanate. Rana Kumbha's grandson Rana Sanga turned Mewar into one of greatest powers in northern India during early 16th century.

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  140. 142NewsRajputs demanding reservation threaten to disrupt chintan shivir16 January 2013
  141. 143NewsAfter Jats, Rajputs of western UP want reservation in govt posts28 April 2016
  142. 144Rajput body condemns govt for putting Sikh Rajputs in 'backward classes'The Tribune India — 2016-12-20
  143. 145Rajputs to be accorded back general status, as per demand, says Punjab CM Channi2021-11-15
  144. 146BookArea Handbook for PakistanRichard F. Nyrop — U.S. Government Printing Office — 1975
  145. 147BookEthnic Knowledge and Perspectives of Medicinal PlantsApple Academic Press — 2023
  146. 148BookIndia's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes in North IndiaC. Jaffrelot — Hurst — 2003
  147. 149JournalInfluence of Caste, Education and Family on Women's Participation in Village Panchayats of Uttarakhand with special reference to Ukhimath and Raipur blockAnjali Semwal — 31 January 2023
  148. 150BookHimachal Pradesh Well-established Domination of Majoritarian Upper CastesRamesh K. Chauhan et al. — Taylor and Francis group — 2012
  149. 151Christophe Jaffrelot, "The uneven plebeianisation of Madhya Pradesh politics", Seminar, Nov. 2008, pp. 28-33, archived on 5 February 2025: "Madhya Pradesh (...) where the proportion of Rajputs is high
  150. 152BookUttar Pradesh Elections 2022: More than a State At Stake (UP Elections)Anil Maheshwari — Om Books International — 2022
  151. 153NewsIlliberal Practices: Territorial Variance Within Large Federal DemocraciesJHU Press — 2016
  152. 154BookInclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India pollsSAGE Publications Ltd — 2009
  153. 155NewsPoliticsBihar's Much-Awaited Caste Census Puts OBC-EBC Groups at Politically Dominant 63%2 October 2023
  154. 156JournalCaste, Community, and Victory: Decoding the BJP's Historic Third Win in Haryana's 2024 ElectionsDr Sandeep Yadav, Dr Ashutosh Birla — 30 October 2024
  155. 157District Profile
  156. 158Gazetteer of Gujranwala District 2020, compiled and published under the supervision of the deputy commissioner Gujranwala, Punjab Government, p. 34
  157. 159District Profile
  158. 160"With Friends Like These...": Human Rights Violations in Azad Kashmir: II. BackgroundHuman Rights Watch
  159. 161Sodha Rajputs & Their Losing Battle With Indo-Pak TensionsBeena Sarwar — 15 May 2022
  160. 162National Population and Housing Census 2021 National Report on Caste/ethnicity, Language & Religion
  161. 163BookThe Divine Hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in Central IndiaLawrence A. Babb — Columbia University Press — 1975
  162. 164BookAlchemies of Violence: Myths of Identity and the Life of Trade in Western IndiaLawrence A Babb — SAGE — 2004
  163. 165Rajput11 December 2023
  164. 166BookDesert people: caste and community—a Rajasthani villageRolf Lunheim — University of Trondheim & Norsk Hydro AS — 1993
  165. 167BookIdentity, Gender, and Poverty: New Perspectives on Caste and Tribe in RajasthanMaya Unnithan-Kumar — Berghahn Books — 1997
  166. 168BookAnthropology of Ancient Hindu Kingdoms: A Study in Civilizational PerspectiveMakhan Jha — M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. — 1 January 1997
  167. 169BookMartial Races: The Military, Race and Masculinity in British Imperial Culture, 1857–1914Heather Streets — Manchester University Press — 2004
  168. 170JournalMartial Races and Imperial Subjects: Violence and Governance in Colonial India 1857–1914Gavin Rand — March 2006
  169. 172BookKhaki and the Ethnic Violence in India: Army, Police, and Paramilitary Forces During Communal RiotsOmar Khalidi — Three Essays Collective — 2003
  170. 173BookProstitution, Race, and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in the British EmpirePhilippa Levine — Psychology Press — 2003
  171. 174BookGorkhaland Movement: A Study in Ethnic SeparatismAmiya K. Samanta — APH Publishing — 2000
  172. 175BookHinglaj Devi: Identity, Change, and Solidification at a Hindu Temple in PakistanJürgen Schaflechner — Oxford University Press — 2018
  173. 176BookNomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian DesertTanuja Kothiyal — Cambridge University Press — 2016-03-14
  174. 177BookCensus of India, 1961India Office of the Registrar General — Manager of Publications — 1966
  175. 178BookA Critical Study of Rajasthani Literature, with Exclusive Reference to the Contribution of CāraṇasManohara Prabhākara — Panchsheel Prakashan — 1976
  176. 179BookPerceptions of Climate Change from North India: An Ethnographic AccountAase J. Kvanneid — Routledge — 2021
  177. 1807 Interesting Martial Art Forms in IndiaCharu Chowdhary
  178. 181BookSati: Widow Burning in IndiaSakuntala Narasimhan — Doubleday — 1992
  179. 182BookIs the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian GoddessesAlf Hiltebeitel et al. — Sheffield Academic Press — 2000
  180. 183BookFrom Purdah to the People: Memoirs of Padma Shri Rani Laxmi Kumari ChundawatLakshmī Kumārī Cūṇḍāvata — Rawat Publications — 2000
  181. 184BookIf Rain Doesn't Come: An Anthropological Study of Drought and Human Ecology in Western RajasthanR. J. Fisher — Manohar — 1997
  182. 185BookEat Not this Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the PresentFrederick J. Simoons — Univ of Wisconsin Press — 1994
  183. 186BookOur War: Real stories of Commonwealth soldiers during World War IIChristopher Somerville — Orion — 2020-04-16
  184. 187BookA Military History of Medieval IndiaGurcharn Singh Sandhu — Vision Books — 2003
  185. 188BookPower, Profit, and Poetry: Traditional Society in Kathiawar, Western IndiaHarald Tambs-Lyche — Manohar Publishers & Distributors — 1997
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  188. 191BookSuicide and Culture: Understanding the ContextErminia Colucci et al. — Hogrefe Publishing — 2012
  189. 192BookCountering Gender Violence: Initiatives Towards Collective Action in RajasthanKanchan Mathur — SAGE Publications — 16 November 2004
  190. 193BookColonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British IndiaHarald Fischer-Tiné et al. — Anthem Press — 2004
  191. 194BookRole of Women in the Freedom Movement, 1857-1947Manmohan Kaur — Sterling Publishers — 1968
  192. 195JournalEmbodying Royal Concubinage: Some Aspects of Concubinage in Royal Rajput Household of Marwar, (Western Rajasthan) C. 16Priyanka Khanna — 2011
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  195. 198BookColonialism as Civilizing Mission: Cultural Ideology in British IndiaMalavika Kasturi — Anthem Press — March 2004
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