Brexit
Brexit, the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, ended with a countdown clock projected onto 10 Downing Street. A recording of Big Ben chimed as 11 p.m. GMT arrived on the 31st of January 2020. At that moment the UK's membership ended, 47 years after it began.
Only one country has ever left the European Union, and it was the United Kingdom. How did a nation that once chose, by a wide margin, to stay become the one that left? What did the word Brexit mean when it was first written down, and who wrote it? Why did leaving demand years of argument and a string of missed deadlines? And what has the exit changed in the years since?
On the 15th of May 2012, Peter Wilding published a blog post on the website Euractiv. Wilding was director of European policy at BSkyB. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, his post coined the word Brexit, a blend of British and exit. He used it for the end of the UK's membership of the EU.
The word spread fast. By 2016 its use had climbed by 3,400% in a single year. On the 2nd of November 2016 the Collins English Dictionary chose Brexit as its word of the year. After the vote that summer, a whole vocabulary of related jargon entered popular speech.
The idea behind the word was much older than the word. It reaches back to a French president who twice told Britain no.
In 1951 six European countries, later called the Inner Six, signed the Treaty of Paris and created the European Coal and Steel Community. The Messina Conference of 1955 judged the experiment a success and resolved to extend it. That led to the 1957 Treaty of Rome, which established the European Economic Community and the European Atomic Energy Community. In 1967 these bodies became known together as the European Communities.
Britain tried to join in 1963 and again in 1967. French president Charles de Gaulle vetoed both applications. He feared the UK would be a Trojan Horse for American influence. After de Gaulle resigned in 1969, a new British application succeeded.
The House of Commons debated membership at length in October 1971, and the decisive vote in favour was 356 to 244. Historian Piers Ludlow judged the debate to be of high quality and thorough. In his reading, MPs were not tricked into joining a narrow commercial body without knowing the EEC was a political project that could grow.
Conservative prime minister Edward Heath signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972, and Parliament passed the European Communities Act later that year. On the 1st of January 1973 the UK joined alongside Denmark and the Republic of Ireland, with no referendum. Two territories had already departed the communities. Algeria ceased to be part of the EC after its independence from France in 1962, and Greenland, part of the Kingdom of Denmark, left in 1985.
The first national referendum in British history came in 1975. Labour won the February 1974 election without a majority. It then fought the October 1974 election promising to renegotiate Britain's terms, which it considered unfavourable, and to put the result to a vote. Labour won again, this time with a small majority.
Despite deep division inside the governing party, all major parties and the mainstream press backed staying in. On the 5th of June 1975-67.2% of voters chose to remain, and all but two British counties and regions agreed. Support for leaving in 1975 appears unrelated to support for Leave in 2016.
In 1979 the UK secured its first opt-out, though nobody used that word yet. It was the only EEC country that stayed out of the European Monetary System.
Labour's 1983 election manifesto promised to withdraw from the EC without a referendum. In the 1970s and 1980s Labour was the more Eurosceptic of the two big parties, and the Conservatives the more Europhile. After a heavy defeat in that election, Labour changed its policy.
Two years later Margaret Thatcher's second government ratified the Single European Act, the first major revision of the Treaty of Rome, without a referendum. Thatcher had earlier supported the common market. In her Bruges speech of 1988 she warned against "a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". She influenced Daniel Hannan, who in 1990 founded the Oxford Campaign for Independent Britain. The Financial Times later wrote: "With hindsight, some see this as the start of the campaign for Brexit".
In October 1990 the UK joined the European Exchange Rate Mechanism, pegging the pound to the deutschmark. Senior ministers pushed for it, despite Thatcher's deep reservations. She resigned the following month amid Conservative divisions, which her increasingly Eurosceptic views had partly caused. Black Wednesday came in September 1992, when currency speculation battered the pound and forced Britain out of the mechanism. Italy left that same month but soon rejoined on a different band. Britain never sought re-entry.
On the 1st of November 1993 the EC became the EU under the Maastricht Treaty, once all twelve member states had ratified it. The treaty was a compromise between states wanting deeper integration and states wanting more national control. Denmark, France and the Republic of Ireland held referendums. Under parliamentary sovereignty, Britain did not.
Constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor saw a problem. He wrote that there was "a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum". MPs hold legislative power from the electorate, he argued, but not the authority to hand it away. The treaty also featured in the manifestos of all three major parties, so voters who opposed it had few ways to say so. In his view ratification might be legal but not legitimate, because legitimacy needs popular consent.
The Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party rebelled over the treaty, and the vote split the party. Many past supporters left to form alternative Eurosceptic parties. Sir James Goldsmith founded the Referendum Party in 1994 to contest the 1997 general election on a promise of a referendum. Later, the Treaty of Lisbon was ratified by the European Union (Amendment) Act 2008 with no vote. A referendum had been promised on the abandoned European Constitution, and it was never held. UKIP, which joined the collective campaign that followed, would go on to top a national poll in 2014.
In the 2014 European elections UKIP won 27.5% of the vote and became the largest UK party. Its anti-EU campaigns drove the surge, and the result pressed hard on the governing Conservatives.
Perceptions of EU leadership during crises fed the mood. During the eurozone debt crisis, bailouts came with strict austerity conditions, and member states including the UK were asked to contribute. Critics said the policies served leading nations, particularly Germany, and undermined national sovereignty. In 2015 Chancellor Angela Merkel opened EU borders and asked member states to share the burden of housing refugees. Many Britons saw obligations imposed without proper consultation, and parties such as UKIP exploited that feeling.
Professor John Curtice of Strathclyde University published an analysis in April 2016. It found that Euroscepticism, meaning a wish to leave or to stay and reduce the EU's powers, had risen from 38% in 1993 to 65% in 2015. Yet a survey from July to November 2015 found 60% backing continued membership and only 30% backing withdrawal.
In 2012 Prime Minister David Cameron first rejected calls for a referendum, then floated one to endorse a renegotiated relationship. On the 23rd of January 2013, in his Bloomberg speech, he promised an in-or-out vote before the end of 2017 if his party won the general election of the 7th of May 2015. Pressure from many of his MPs and from UKIP's rise lay behind the pledge. The Conservatives won a majority, and the European Union Referendum Act 2015 soon followed.
Cameron wanted to remain in a reformed EU and sought four changes. He asked for protection of the single market for countries outside the eurozone, less red tape, an exemption from ever-closer union, and limits on immigration from the rest of the EU. Polls in December 2015 showed a clear majority for remaining, though support would fall without adequate safeguards. The deal revealed in February 2016 allowed some limits on in-work benefits for new EU immigrants. A state such as the UK would first need permission from the European Commission and then from the European Council.
On the 22nd of February 2016 Cameron told the House of Commons that the referendum would be held on the 23rd of June. After the original wording was challenged, the government changed the question to "Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?" Cameron also said he would trigger Article 50 straight after a Leave vote, starting a "two-year time period to negotiate the arrangements for exit."
Leave took 51.89% of the vote and Remain 48.11%. London voted to remain, as did Scotland and Northern Ireland, while every other region of England and Wales backed leaving. The Scottish and Northern Irish majorities barely dented the total because England's population is far larger.
A 2017 study in the journal Economic Policy found the Leave vote was greater in areas with lower incomes, high unemployment, a strong tradition of manufacturing work and fewer qualifications. It was also greater where many Eastern European migrants, mainly low-skilled workers, had arrived in areas with many native low-skilled workers. Other studies tied it to economic decline, high rates of suicide and drug-related deaths, and the austerity reforms of 2010.
Economist Thomas Sampson of the London School of Economics found that older and less-educated voters were more likely to choose leave. A majority of white voters wanted to leave, but only 33% of Asian voters and 27% of black voters did. He linked leaving to socially conservative beliefs, a dislike of cosmopolitanism and a sense that life in Britain was getting worse.
YouGov polling pointed the same way. Conservative voters were 61% likely to vote leave, against 35% for Labour voters. People over 65 were 64% likely to vote leave, while 18-24-year-olds were only 29% likely. Those with a GCSE or lower qualification were 70% likely to vote leave, compared with 32% of graduates. Households earning under £20,000 were 62% likely to vote leave, and households earning £60,000 or more, 35%.
Geography split the country further. Manchester and Liverpool returned remain majorities of 60% and 58%. In industrial and post-industrial parts of northern England, North Lincolnshire and South Tyneside both backed leave heavily.
Polls found that Leave voters mainly cited "the principle that decisions about the UK should be taken in the UK" and a chance to regain control of immigration and borders. Remain voters mainly feared that "the risks of voting to leave the EU looked too great when it came to things like the economy, jobs and prices."
A petition for a second referendum drew more than four million signatures, but the government rejected it on the 9th of July 2016. Cameron resigned on the 13th of July, and Theresa May became prime minister after a leadership contest.
The Electoral Commission then investigated campaign spending and issued a large number of fines. In February 2017 Leave.EU, the main Leave campaign group, was fined £50,000 for sending marketing messages without permission. In December 2017 the Liberal Democrats were fined £18,000 and Open Britain £1,250 for breaching campaign finance rules. In May 2018 Leave.EU was fined £70,000 for unlawful overspending and for inaccurately reporting loans from Arron Banks totalling £6 million. In July 2018 Vote Leave was fined £61,000 for overspending, for not declaring finances shared with BeLeave, and for failing to comply with investigators.
In November 2017 the Commission also opened a probe into claims that Russia had tried to sway opinion through social media. In July 2020 the Intelligence and Security Committee accused the government of actively avoiding an investigation. Its report did not judge whether Russian information operations affected the result.
Lord Kerr of Kinlochard drafted Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union, which the Treaty of Lisbon introduced when it entered into force in 2009. It lets any member state withdraw in line with its own constitutional requirements by notifying the European Council. That starts a two-year negotiating period. If no agreement is reached, membership simply ends, unless every state, including the leaver, agrees to an extension.
In January 2017 the Supreme Court ruled in the Miller case that the government could invoke Article 50 only with an act of Parliament. The European Union (Notification of Withdrawal) Act 2017 became law on the 16th of March. On the 29th of March, Tim Barrow, the British ambassador to the EU, delivered Theresa May's letter to European Council President Donald Tusk. That made the 29th of March 2019 the expected exit date.
In April 2017 May called a snap election for the 8th of June, hoping to strengthen her hand in the talks. The result was an unexpected hung parliament. The Conservatives stayed the largest party but lost their majority. On the 26th of June they struck a confidence and supply deal with the Democratic Unionist Party, which included an extra £1 billion for Northern Ireland.
Negotiations opened on the 19th of June 2017, with Michel Barnier as the EU's chief negotiator. The EU wanted money and citizens' rights settled before any talk of the future relationship. Its first estimate of the "divorce bill" was £52 billion. A partial agreement in December 2017 ruled out a hard border in Ireland, protected citizens' rights and put the settlement at £35-39 billion. May stressed that "Nothing is agreed until everything is agreed".
In July 2018 the government published the Chequers plan for the future relationship. It sought access to the single market for goods but not necessarily for services, along with an independent trade policy. Brexit Secretary David Davis and Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson resigned over it.
On the 13th of November 2018 negotiators agreed the text of a draft withdrawal agreement. Brexit Secretary Dominic Raab resigned over what he called "fatal flaws". The European Research Group of Eurosceptic Conservative MPs objected to the Irish backstop, the £39 billion settlement and the continuing role of the European Court of Justice. Labour wanted a customs union. The Liberal Democrats and the Scottish National Party sought a second referendum.
On the 10th of December 2018, minutes after her office said the vote would go ahead, May postponed it. The same day the European Court of Justice ruled that the UK could unilaterally revoke its notification, provided the decision was "unequivocal and unconditional" and followed a democratic process. Scottish politicians had launched that case.
On the 15th of January 2019 the Commons rejected the deal by 432 votes to 202, the largest majority ever against a UK government. A no-confidence motion then failed by 325 votes to 306. The deal lost again on the 12th of March, by 391 to 242. On the 18th of March the Speaker ruled that a third vote needed a significantly different motion, citing precedents back to 1604. On the 29th of March it fell a third time, by 344 to 286.
May had asked Tusk on the 20th of March for a delay until the 30th of June. EU leaders rejected that date and offered two options. Brexit would come on the 22nd of May if MPs approved her deal, or on the 12th of April if they did not. The Commons approved the change by 441 votes to 105. After the third defeat, late-night talks in Brussels on the 10th of April produced a longer extension to the 31st of October 2019.
Boris Johnson became prime minister on the 24th of July 2019, and the EU then softened its refusal to reopen the agreement. On the 17th of October, after "tunnel talks", negotiators agreed a revised deal with a new Northern Ireland Protocol. Parliament approved it for further scrutiny but refused to pass it into law before the deadline. The Benn Act forced Johnson to ask for a third delay, and on the 28th of October the EU agreed to a deadline at the end of January 2020.
Johnson then sought an early election. Three motions under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act failed to reach the required two-thirds majority. So the government introduced an election bill needing only a simple majority, and it passed by 438 votes to 20. Polling day was the 12th of December 2019.
The Conservatives won 365 seats, a gain of 47, and an overall majority of 80. Labour suffered its worst defeat since 1935, losing 60 seats and falling to 202. The Liberal Democrats won just 11 seats, and their leader Jo Swinson lost her own. The Scottish National Party won 48. The result ended the deadlock and the prospect of a second referendum.
The ratification bill passed its second reading by 358 votes to 234 on the 20th of December and became law on the 23rd of January 2020. Ursula von der Leyen and Charles Michel signed the withdrawal agreement in Brussels the next day, and Johnson signed in London. On the 29th of January the European Parliament consented by 621 votes to 49. Immediately afterwards, its members joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne.
In Gibraltar a flag ceremony marked the departure, as the EU flag was lowered to Ode to Joy and the Commonwealth flag was raised to God Save the Queen. Nearby in London, a party in Parliament Square, led by Farage, also sang God Save the Queen. Yet leaving formally changed little on day one. An eleven-month transition period began, in which the UK stayed in the single market and customs union but left the EU's political bodies.
The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 keeps relevant EU law as domestic law, which the UK can amend or repeal. Since the exit, EU law and the Court of Justice no longer take primacy over British law.
During the transition the government introduced the Internal Market Bill, which threatened its Northern Ireland commitments. Northern Ireland secretary Brandon Lewis told the Commons: "this does break international law in a very specific and limited way". Sir Jonathan Jones, permanent secretary to the Government Legal Department, resigned, and so did Lord Keen, the law officer for Scotland. The European Commission started legal action.
David Frost and Michel Barnier kept negotiating a permanent trade deal. On the 24th of December 2020 both sides announced one. Parliament passed it on the 30th of December, and it received Royal Assent in the early hours of the next day. Conservatives and Labour voted for it, while all other opposition parties voted against.
The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement applied provisionally from the 1st of January 2021 and formally came into force on the 1st of May. The European Parliament had postponed its vote after the UK extended a grace period on Northern Ireland trade checks, then approved the deal overwhelmingly on the 27th of April. A customs arrangement ran until the 1st of July 2021, letting traders defer declarations and duties for up to six months. Import checks were postponed again, with truck driver shortages one reason, and phased in during 2022.
In 2017 the Financial Times counted about 759 international agreements, across 168 non-EU countries, that the UK would no longer belong to after leaving. Economists broadly agreed that Brexit would likely cut real income per person in the medium and long term. Studies found that uncertainty after the referendum hurt GDP, investment, employment and trade. A government analysis leaked in January 2018 projected growth stunted by 2-8% over fifteen years, depending on the scenario.
In January 2024 the London Mayor's Office released a statement citing a Cambridge Econometrics report. It said London had almost 300,000 fewer jobs, and the country two million fewer, as a direct result of Brexit.
Public opinion shifted too. A petition to revoke Article 50 passed 6.1 million signatures in March 2019, a record for the Parliament petitions site. YouGov polling showed sentiment on whether leaving was right falling from slightly positive in 2016 to minus 11% in 2022. A January 2023 poll found 54% saying the country was wrong to leave and 35% saying it was right. By mid-2025 support for rejoining reached 50% in polls and passed it in July.
In autumn 2025 Chancellor Rachel Reeves said the economic damage from Brexit had forced her to act, with tax rises and spending cuts in the 2025 budget.
Updated
Common questions
What is Brexit?
Brexit was the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union. The word is a blend of Britain and exit, and the UK's membership ended at 11 p.m. GMT on the 31st of January 2020.
Who coined the word Brexit?
Peter Wilding, director of European policy at BSkyB, coined Brexit in a blog post on the website Euractiv on the 15th of May 2012, according to the Oxford English Dictionary. By 2016 use of the word had risen by 3,400% in one year.
What was the result of the Brexit referendum?
The referendum of the 23rd of June 2016 produced 51.89% for Leave and 48.11% for Remain. London, Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to remain, while every other region of England and Wales voted to leave.
Why did Brexit take until 2020 to happen?
Parliament rejected Theresa May's withdrawal agreement three times in 2019, and the exit date was extended repeatedly. A general election on the 12th of December 2019 gave Boris Johnson's Conservatives a majority of 80, which let the revised agreement pass.
When did the UK join the European Communities before Brexit?
The UK joined the European Communities on the 1st of January 1973, alongside Denmark and the Republic of Ireland. It joined without a referendum, and a 1975 referendum later endorsed membership with 67.2% voting to stay.
What is Article 50 in the Brexit process?
Article 50 of the Treaty on European Union lets a member state withdraw by notifying the European Council, which starts a two-year negotiating period. Theresa May triggered it on the 29th of March 2017.
What trade agreement followed Brexit?
The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement was signed on the 30th of December 2020. It applied provisionally from the 1st of January 2021 and formally came into force on the 1st of May 2021.
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- 172NewsBrexit: parliament passes withdrawal agreement bill by 124 majorityHeather Stewart — 20 December 2019
- 173NewsBrexit bill receives Royal Assent23 January 2020
- 174NewsBrexit Deal Passes Penultimate EU Hurdle With Committee ApprovalIan Wishart — 23 January 2020
- 175NewsBrexit: Boris Johnson signs withdrawal agreement in Downing Street24 January 2020
- 176NewsU.K. Takes a Major Step Toward BrexitStephen Castle — 22 January 2020
- 177NewsEuropean Parliament ratifies Boris Johnson's Brexit deal ahead of exit dayAlan McGuinness — Sky News — 29 January 2020
- 178NewsThe European Parliament joined hands and sang Auld Lang Syne in an emotional Brexit farewell to the UKAdam Payne — 30 January 2020
- 179NewsPress send for Brexit: E.U. seals U.K. withdrawal by emailMatina Stevis-Gridneff — 30 January 2020
- 181JournalSacrificing EU citizenship on the altar of BrexitSerhii Lashyn — 2022
- 182NewsBritain leaves the EU to recorded Big Ben bongs and God Save the Queen – video31 January 2020
- 184NewsBrexit: What is the transition period?Tom Edgington — 20 December 2019
- 185NewsBrexit: Britain says it may break international law in 'limited way'8 September 2020
- 186Northern Ireland Protocol: UK Legal ObligationsTheyWorkForYou — 8 September 2020
- 187Senior government lawyer quits over Brexit plans8 September 2020
- 188NewsLord Keen: Senior law officer quits over Brexit bill row16 September 2020
- 189NewsBrexit: EU launches legal action against UK for breaching withdrawal agreementDaniel Boffey et al. — 1 October 2020
- 190NewsBrexit talks to resume after Michel Barnier speech breaks impasseDaniel Boffey et al. — 21 October 2020
- 191NewsUK and EU agree Brexit trade dealDaniel Boffey et al. — 24 December 2020
- 192NewsBrexit: MPs overwhelmingly back post-Brexit deal with EU30 December 2020
- 193NewsBrexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union31 December 2020
- 194NewsEU postpones setting date for ratifying Brexit trade deal4 March 2021
- 195EU parliament agrees to April 27 vote on EU-UK trade dealPhilip Blenkinsop — Reuters — 22 April 2021
- 196NewsBrexit: European Parliament backs UK trade deal28 April 2021
- 197NewsBrexit: full controls on goods entering UK will not apply until July 2021Jennifer Rankin et al. — 12 June 2020
- 198NewsUK forced to delay checks on imports from EU by six monthsJoanna Partridge — 11 March 2021
- 199NewsBritain delays post-Brexit import trade controls againKate Holton — Reuters — 14 September 2021
- 200European Union (Withdrawal) Bill 2017–19 – UK ParliamentParliament of the United Kingdom
- 201NewsEU repeal bill wins first Commons vote12 September 2017
- 203What is "exit day"? Dispelling misconceptions about the extension of Article 50Graeme Cowie — House of Commons Library — 19 March 2019
- 204The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 3) Regulations 2019The National Archives — 30 October 2019
- 205Statutory Instruments – 2019 No. 859 – Exiting The European Union – The European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018 (Exit Day) (Amendment) (No. 2) Regulations 2019The Stationery Office Limited — 11 April 2019
- 207NewsKey dates in Brexit processReuters — 2 February 2018
- 208Brexit timeline: events leading to the UK's exit from the European UnionNigel Walker — House of Commons Library — 6 January 2021
- 209Legislating Brexit: The Great Repeal Bill and the wider legislative challengeHannah White et al. — March 2017
- 210Brexit could place 'huge burden' on Parliament20 March 2017
- 212New Bill to implement Withdrawal AgreementGovernment of the United Kingdom — 13 November 2017
- 215Brexit news latest: Poll of polls says Britain is now against leaving EU as most want to stayNicholas Cecil — 10 October 2019
- 216NewsEveryone says they know what the public think about Brexit – here's the polling data that tells you who's rightPeter Kellner — 10 October 2019
- 217Has There Been a Shift in Support for Brexit?John Curtice — 8 February 2019
- 218NewsHave UK voters changed their minds on Brexit?John Curtice — 17 October 2019
- 223Support for leaving EU has fallen significantly across bloc since Brexit12 January 2023
- 226NewsReeves says economic damage caused by Brexit forcing her to take action in budgetRichard Partington — 21 October 2025
- 229Trading places / Negotiating post-Brexit deals. Economist, 4–10 February 2017, p. 25
- 230Temporary tariff regime for no deal Brexit published13 March 2019
- 231NewsUK will cut most tariffs to zero in event of no-deal BrexitLisa O'Carroll et al. — 13 March 2019
- 232NewsCar prices to rise by £1,500 as no-deal tariffs are revealedBen Glaze et al. — 13 March 2019
- 234NewsThis is why farmers are suddenly very worried about a no-deal Brexit13 March 2019
- 235NewsNo-deal plans a bid 'to break EU unity'13 March 2019
- 236UK zero-tariff plan for no-deal Brexit would not spare some EU importsAlisdair Sandford — 13 March 2019
- 237NewsEU to apply normal tariffs on trade with UK in case of no-deal BrexitReuters — 13 March 2019
- 239Brexit questions in national and EU courtsSylvia de Mars et al. — House of Commons Library — 1 November 2019
- 240NewsArticle 50 Challenge
- 245Today's ruling shows the triggering of article 50 can be reversedJolyon Maugham — 21 September 2018
- 247The United Kingdom is free to revoke unilaterally the notification of its intention to withdraw from the EU.Court of Justice of the European Union — 10 December 2018
- 249NewsAfter Brexit: the UK will need to renegotiate at least 759 treatiesPaul McClean — 30 May 2017
- 250NewsBrexit will damage UK standards of living, say economistsChris Giles — 16 April 2017
- 251Brexit: Everyone Loses, but Britain Loses the MostMaría C. Latorre et al. — March 2019
- 252The impact of Brexit uncertainty on UK exportsMeredith Crowley et al. — 21 January 2019
- 253NewsBrexit has already hurt EU and non-EU exports by up to 13% – new researchChristian Soegaard et al. — 23 October 2018
- 254JournalThe Trade Effects of the Brexit Announcement ShockMustapha Douch et al. — 2018
- 255Voting with their money: Brexit and outward investment by UK firmsHolger Breinlich et al. — 12 February 2019
- 256NewsBrexit referendum spurs British companies into investing in EUAndy Bruce — Reuters — 11 February 2019
- 257NewsThis Leaked Government Brexit Analysis Says The UK Will Be Worse Off In Every ScenarioAlberto Nardelli — 29 January 2018
- 258NewsSecret data show Britain worse off under all Brexit scenariosGeorge Parker — 30 January 2018
- 259JournalThe international financial implications of BrexitBarry Eichengreen — 7 January 2019
- 260JournalBrexit and financial settrvicesJohn Armour — 1 March 2017
- 261NewsCANZUK: after Brexit, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Britain can unite as a pillar of Western civilisationAndrew Roberts — 13 September 2016
- 262Brexit boosts 'CANZUK' replacement for European Union: ColumnJames C. Bennett — 24 June 2016
- 263NewsOpinion Brexit Meets GravityPaul Krugman — 10 July 2018
- 265How 'Economists for Brexit' manage to defy the laws of gravityThomas Sampson et al. — 2 June 2016
- 266JournalBrexit and the Future of the UK's Unbalanced Economic GeographyAndrew Carter et al. — 2019
- 267Mayor highlights Brexit damage to London economyMayor of London — 11 January 2024
- 268Depuis le Brexit, le Royaume-Uni s'est détourné de l'EuropeGuillaume de Calignon — 27 December 2024
- 269NewsFive key impacts of Brexit five years on31 January 2025
- 270FactCheck: What are the options for the Irish border after Brexit?Channel 4 — 29 November 2017
- 271NewsBrexit will not mean hard border, leaders vowNiamh Lyons — 31 January 2017
- 272NewsBritain does not want return to Northern Ireland border controls, says May26 July 2016
- 273NewsBrexit: the unexpected threat to peace in Northern IrelandNic Robertson — CNN — 6 April 2018
- 275NewsBrexit threatens Good Friday agreement, Irish PM warnsDavid Smith — 14 March 2018
- 276NewsBrexit: What are the backstop options?13 September 2019
- 277Brexit: What is in Boris Johnson's new deal with the EU?21 October 2019
- 278How Boris Johnson moved to break the Brexit deadlockGeorge Parker et al. — 11 October 2019
- 279NewsGood Friday Agreement negotiators call for NI Protocol suspension7 May 2021
- 280NewsScotland Says New Vote on Independence Is 'Highly Likely'25 June 2016
- 281Nicola Sturgeon Denies She Has "Machiavellian" Wish For BrexitNed Simons — 24 January 2016
- 282NewsNicola Sturgeon says Scotland will pursue EU membership after independence20 March 2017
- 283NewsTheresa May rejects Nicola Sturgeon's referendum demandHeather Stewart — 16 March 2017
- 284NewsSturgeon: independent Scotland may need "phased" return to EU14 May 2017
- 285NewsScotland, Wales and London want special Brexit deal if Northern Ireland gets oneReuters — 4 December 2017
- 286NewsBrexit: What is the Northern Ireland Protocol and why are there checks?15 March 2021
- 288Forging a new UK-wide agricultural framework post-BrexitLondon School of Economics — 2018
- 292NewsUK, Spain reach Brexit deal over Gibraltar: Spanish PM18 October 2018
- 293NewsSpanish PM lifts effective veto on Brexit deal after Gibraltar 'guarantee'24 November 2018
- 296NewsEU-Haushalt: Deutschland überweist das meiste Geld an BrüsselHendrik Kafsack — 8 August 2016
- 297NewsBrexit wird teuer für DeutschlandReuters/Deutsche Presse-Agentur — 10 September 2016
- 300JournalDon't cry for me Britannia: The resilience of the European Union to BrexitNarisong Huhe et al. — 2020
- 301There Is Life for the EU After BrexitCaroline de Gruyter
- 302Press releaseEMA now operating from AmsterdamEuropean Medicines Agency — 11 March 2019
- 303NewsEMA gets keys to new HQ18 November 2019
- 305JournalUK higher education and BrexitKen Mayhew — 1 March 2017
- 306BookUNESCO Science Report: towards 2030UNESCO Publishing — 2015
- 307Treasury to guarantee post-Brexit funding for EU-backed projectsJessica Elgot et al. — 13 August 2016
- 308Aviation and the European Common Aviation Area (ECAA)Institute for Government — 10 September 2017
- 309Flights to and from the UK if there's no Brexit deal24 September 2018
- 310Getting to Europe Post Brexit – The Impact on Ferry Companies23 April 2018
- 311NewsU.K. Starts Research on Brexit Customs System Due in Four Months27 August 2020
- 312'The money machine is misfiring': City blames Brexit for UK's £20bn productivity headacheRichard Partington — 31 October 2025
- 313Farm payments in a no-deal BrexitFergal Davis et al. — House of Commons Library — 18 October 2019
- 314Common Agricultural PolicyInstitute for Government — 16 May 2017
- 315Brexit: UK agriculture policyEmma Downing et al. — House of Commons Library — 11 September 2018
- 317Fisheries and BrexitElena Ares — House of Commons Library — 30 October 2019
- 318NewsReality Check: How would Brexit affect the UK's fishing waters?31 May 2016
- 319Common Fisheries PolicyInstitute for Government — 17 February 2017
- 321NewsUK fishermen may not win waters back after Brexit, EU memo revealsDaniel Boffey — 15 February 2017
- 322NewsUK to withdraw from international fishing arrangement2 July 2017
- 323JournalHow will Brexit affect health services in the UK? An updated evaluationMartin McKee et al. — 25 February 2019
- 324Continuity of suppliesNHS England
- 325News96% drop in EU nurses registering to work in Britain since Brexit voteHaroon Siddique — 12 June 2017
- 326NHS staff from overseas: statisticsCarl Baker — 22 November 2022
- 328Brexit deal delay could put NHS patients at risk, Tory MP warnsSarah Marsh — 16 February 2018
- 329Drug firms preparing for no-deal Brexit told to sign 'gagging orders'Rajeev Syal — 23 December 2018
- 330Managing migration after BrexitJoe Owen et al. — Institute for Government — 8 March 2019
- 331NewsThe post-Brexit immigration plans at a glance19 December 2018
- 332EU Settlement SchemeHannah Wilkins et al. — House of Commons Library — 25 February 2020
- 333Future skills-based immigration system: executive summaryHome Office — 19 December 2018
- 334ReportMacroeconomic Determinants of International Migration to the UKGiuseppe Forte et al. — 1 May 2017
- 335JournalImmigration after BrexitJonathan Portes — 1 November 2016
- 336NewsBrexit: What effect could leaving the European Union have on football transfers?31 October 2018
- 337How Brexit will affect Premier League football22 March 2019
- 338News'Europeans are almost not coming to the UK any more'Al Jazeera — 9 June 2023
- 339NewsFivefold rise in number of EU citizens refused entry to UK since Brexit25 November 2023
- 341Explanatory notes on the European Union (Withdrawal) Act 2018The Stationery Office
- 344NewsCovid pandemic masks Brexit impact on UK economyChris Giles — 1 July 2021
- 345NewsBrexit one year on: the impact on the UK economyChris Giles — 23 December 2021
- 346NewsThe initial impact of Brexit on UK trade with the EU27 October 2021
- 347Brexit has been a 'factor' in fuel crisis, Grant Shapps admits28 September 2021
- 348NewsHow serious is the shortage of lorry drivers?14 July 2021
- 349NewsEU single market avoids supply problemsBruno Waterfield — 29 September 2021
- 350A Report on the Driver ShortageJuly 2021
- 351NewsUK warned visa plan to fix truck driver shortage will not solve crunchReuters — 26 September 2021
- 352News'Brexit made clear Eastern Europeans are not welcome in UK'Deutsche Welle — 5 October 2021
- 353Britain's thriving art scene strangled by Brexit chaosMia Jankowicz — 20 March 2017
- 354BookMigration and Stereotypes in Performance and CultureK. Lech — Palgrave Macmillan — 2020
- 355JournalBrexit Beyond the UK's Borders: What It Means for AfricaNadine Ansorg et al. — 2016
- 356BookMy secret Brexit diary: a glorious illusionMichel Barnier — Polity — 2021
- 357BookBrexit: Why Britain Voted to Leave the European UnionHarold D. Clarke et al. — Cambridge University Press — 2017
- 358Journal'People in this country have had enough of experts': Brexit and the paradoxes of populismJohn Clarke et al. — 2 January 2017
- 359BookTales of Brexits past and present: understanding the choices, threats and opportunities in our separation from the EUNigel Culkin et al. — Emerald Publishing — 2019
- 360BookBrexit and British politicsGeoffrey Evans et al. — Polity Press — 2017
- 361MagazineFools Rush OutJonathan Freedland — 26 September 2019
- 362JournalBritain Adrift: The United Kingdom's Search for a Post-Brexit RoleLawrence D. Freedman — May–June 2020
- 363JournalBritish conservatism after the vote for Brexit: The ideological legacy of David CameronRichard Hayton — February 2018
- 364BookUnderstanding Brexit: a concise introductionTimothy G. Oliver — Policy Press — 2018
- 365BookA short history of Brexit: from brentry to backstopKevin H. O'Rourke — Pelican Books — 2019
- 366BookHeroic failure: Brexit and the politics of painFintan O'Toole — Head of Zeus — 2018
- 367BookBrexit: sociological responsesWilliam Outhwaite — Anthem Press — 2017
- 368BookThe Brexit: The Legal Framework for Withdrawal from the EU or Renegotiation of EU MembershipSteve Peers — Hart Publishing — 2016
- 369Book9 Lessons in BrexitIvan Rogers — Short Books — 2019
- 370BookPolitical racism: Brexit and its aftermathMartin Shaw — Agenda Publishing — 2022
- 371BookAll out war: the full story of how Brexit sank Britain's political classTim Shipman — HarperCollins — 2016
- 372BookFall out: a year of political mayhemTim Shipman — HarperCollins — 2017