Algeria
Stone artifacts dating to approximately 1.8 million years old were discovered at Ain Hanech in northern Algeria, representing the oldest archaeological materials found in North Africa. Nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit yielded cut-marked bones estimated to be around 1.9 million years old and even older stone tools reaching back 2.4 million years. These findings suggest ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe of northern Africa much earlier than previously believed. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the Levalloisian and Mousterian styles by 43,000 BC that closely resembled those found in the Levant. The highest state of development for Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques occurred within this region. Tools from about 30,000 BC are known as Aterian after the site Bir el Ater located south of Tebessa. Blade industries called Iberomaurusian appeared mainly in the Oran region between 15,000 and 10,000 BC spreading across coastal Maghreb areas. Neolithic civilization involving animal domestication and agriculture developed perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life form richly depicted in Tassili n'Ajjer paintings dominated until the classical period when distinct native populations emerged.
Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early eighth century with negligible resistance from local populations. Large numbers of indigenous Berber people converted to Islam while Christians and Latin speakers remained a majority in Tunisia until the end of the ninth century. Numerous local dynasties emerged including Rustamids Aghlabids Fatimids Zirids Hammadids Almoravids Almohads and Zayyanids following the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Fatimid caliphate began collapsing when its governors the Zirids seceded leading to an Arab Banu Hilal invasion that destroyed much of the countryside. By 1057 Arabs spread on high plains of Constantine encircling Qalaa of Banu Hammad before gradually gaining upper Algiers and Oran plains. Abd al-Mu'min founded the Almohad dynasty originating from modern day Algeria taking control over Morocco in 1147 and pushing into Algeria by 1152. In 1235 Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan declared independence establishing Kingdom of Tlemcen under Zayyanid dynasty which retained control for three centuries. Turkish privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa moved their base to Algiers in 1516 conquering Jijel and Algiers from Spaniards with help from locals who saw them as liberators. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen Hayreddin succeeded him receiving title of beylerbey from Ottoman sultan along with 2,000 janissaries. By 1659 Janissaries known as Odjak of Algiers joined corsair captains called Reis overthrowing Ottoman viceroy installing new leader known as Agha later becoming Dey in 1671.
The French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830 under pretext of slight to their consul though full conquest did not occur until 1903. Methods used by French forces reached genocidal proportions according to historian Ben Kiernan who noted approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians died since 1830 due to warfare disease and starvation. Between 1831 and 1851 French losses included 92,329 dead in hospital versus only 3,336 killed in action indicating severe health crises among invaders. By 1872 Algerian population stood at about 2.9 million having declined nearly one-third from 1830 levels through combined violence and epidemics. Napoleon III declared on the 17th of September 1860 that first duty was taking care happiness of three million Arabs brought under domination. Only Kabylia resisted colonization until after Mokrani Revolt in 1871 when Kabylians were finally colonized. Alexis de Tocqueville wrote unpublished essay outlining ideas for transforming Algeria into colonial regime advocating mixed system total domination and total colonization where military waged war against civilians while administration provided rule law property rights settlers within occupied cities. France administered whole Mediterranean region as integral part département nation from 1848 until independence making it one longest-held overseas territories destination hundreds thousands European immigrants known colons later Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847 fifty thousand French people emigrated benefiting government confiscation communal land tribal peoples application modern agricultural techniques increasing arable land amount. Many Europeans settled Oran Algiers forming majority population both cities early twentieth century.
Uprising against occupying French forces suppressed May 1945 through Sétif and Guelma massacre catalyzing local resistance culminating outbreak Algerian War 1954. First violent events began the 1st of November 1954 publication Declaration marking start conflict leading death hundreds thousands Algerians injuries many more. Historians like Alistair Horne Raymond Aron state actual number Muslim war dead far greater original FLN official French estimates less than million deaths claimed Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated casualties during eight-year span around 700,000 uprooting more than two million Algerians. War concluded 1962 complete independence following March Evian agreements July self-determination referendum. More than 900,000 European Pied-Noirs fled Algeria between 1962 and 1964 accelerating exodus mainland France after Oran massacre 1962 where hundreds militants entered European sections attacking civilians. First president Front de Libération Nationale leader Ahmed Ben Bella overthrown 1965 Houari Boumédiène former ally defense minister continuing socialist authoritarian trend relying heavily army support reducing sole legal party symbolic role collectivizing agriculture launching massive industrialization drive nationalizing oil extraction facilities benefiting leadership international 1973 oil crisis. December 1991 Islamic Salvation Front dominated first legislative elections rounds authorities intervened the 11th of January 1992 cancelling elections triggering civil insurgency between Front armed wing Armed Islamic Group national armed forces thought killed more than 100,000 people Islamist militants conducted violent campaign civilian massacres including Air France Flight 8969 hijacking October 1997 declared ceasefire.
Algeria largest country Africa spanning over area Mediterranean basin southern part includes significant portion Sahara desert northern Tell Atlas forms Saharan Atlas further south parallel sets reliefs approaching eastbound vast plains highlands inserted between them merging eastern Algeria highest point Mount Tahat. Most coastal area hilly sometimes mountainous few natural harbors fertile area coast to Tell Atlas steppe landscape ending Saharan Atlas farther south Sahara desert Hoggar Mountains highland region central Sahara located about south capital Algiers just east Tamanghasset. Midday desert temperatures hot year round clear dry air permits rapid loss heat nights cool chilly enormous daily ranges recorded rainfall fairly plentiful along coastal Tell Atlas ranging annually increasing west east heaviest precipitation northern part eastern Algeria reaching some years. Farther inland less plentiful rain Algeria also ergs sand dunes mountains summer time heavy gusty winds temperatures go up to degrees Celsius. Forest cover around one percent total land area equivalent 1,949,000 hectares 2020 up from 1,667,000 hectares 1990 naturally regenerating forest covered 1,439,000 hectares planted forest covered 510,000 hectares. Eighty percent forest area reported public ownership 18% private ownership two percent listed other unknown. Fennec fox national animal variety bird species makes country attraction bird watchers wild boars jackals gazelles commonly seen fennecs jerboas spotted rarely African leopard Saharan cheetah population seldom seen Barbary stag inhabits dense humid forests north-eastern areas.
Government described authoritarian elected politicians relatively little sway affairs instead group unelected civilian military decideurs known pouvoir exercise de facto rule deciding who should president most powerful man Mohamed Mediène head military intelligence before brought down during 2019 protests. President elected five-year term limited two terms recent presidential election planned April 2019 widespread protests erupted February 22 against president decision participate resulting resignation April 3 Abdelmadjid Tebboune independent candidate elected the 12th of December 2019 winning first round record abstention rate highest all presidential elections since democracy 1989. Protestors refused recognize Tebboune citing demands comprehensive reform political system. Military consists People's National Army Algerian National Navy Algerian Air Force Territorial Air Defence Forces direct successor National Liberation Army armed wing nationalist National Liberation Front fought French colonial occupation during Algerian War Independence 1954-62. Total personnel include 147,000 active 150,000 reserve 187,000 paramilitary staff 2008 estimate service compulsory men aged 19-30 total twelve months. Military expenditure four point three percent gross domestic product 2012 second-largest military North Africa largest defense budget Africa ten billion dollars most weapons imported Russia close ally. In 2007 Algerian Air Force signed deal purchase forty-nine MiG-29SMT six MiG-29UBT estimated cost one point nine billion dollars Russia building two sixty-three-six type diesel submarines Algeria.
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Common questions
When were the oldest stone artifacts discovered in Algeria?
Stone artifacts dating to approximately 1.8 million years old were discovered at Ain Hanech in northern Algeria, representing the oldest archaeological materials found in North Africa.
Who conquered Algeria in the early eighth century and what happened to local populations?
Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early eighth century with negligible resistance from local populations while large numbers of indigenous Berber people converted to Islam.
How many indigenous Algerians died since 1830 due to French invasion methods?
Approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians died since 1830 due to warfare disease and starvation according to historian Ben Kiernan who noted that methods used by French forces reached genocidal proportions.
What date marked the start of the Algerian War and when did it conclude?
First violent events began the 1st of November 1954 publication Declaration marking start conflict leading death hundreds thousands Algerians injuries many more while war concluded 1962 complete independence following March Evian agreements July self-determination referendum.
When was Abdelmadjid Tebboune elected president of Algeria after the 2019 protests?
Abdelmadjid Tebboune independent candidate elected the 12th of December 2019 winning first round record abstention rate highest all presidential elections since democracy 1989.