Battle of Crete
Hitler signed Directive 28 on the 25th of April 1941, ordering an invasion of Crete. The German Army High Command remained preoccupied with finalizing preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the massive invasion of the Soviet Union. They were largely opposed to a German attack on Crete at first. Hitler stayed concerned about attacks in other theatres, especially against his Romanian fuel supply. Luftwaffe commanders grew enthusiastic about seizing Crete through a daring airborne attack. Their desire to regain prestige after their defeat by the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain played a role in their thinking. Before the invasion, the Germans conducted a bombing campaign to establish air superiority and forced the RAF to move its remaining aircraft to Alexandria in Egypt. The operation was scheduled for the 16th of May 1941 but was postponed to the 20th of May due to weather and logistical delays. Fliegerkorps XI moved from Germany to the Athens area, bringing transport aircraft and gliders needed for the assault. New airfields were built near Athens, Argos, and Corinth to support the operation. The Luftwaffe commander, Colonel General Alexander Löhr, wanted more emphasis on Maleme to achieve overwhelming force. Student wanted to disperse paratroops more to maximize surprise. A compromise plan emerged where Maleme would be captured first while not ignoring other objectives like Heraklion and Rethymno.
British forces had seven commanders in seven months before Major-general Bernard Freyberg took command on the 30th of April 1941. Only about 15,000 British and Commonwealth infantry were on the island initially. Greek forces consisted of approximately three battalions of the 5th Greek Division left behind when the rest transferred to mainland Greece. The Cretan Gendarmerie numbered around 2,500 men. The garrison lacked heavy equipment after evacuations from mainland Greece. Many Greek soldiers carried Mannlicher, Schönauer 6.5 mm mountain carbines or ex-Austrian Steyr-Mannlicher M1895 rifles. About 1,000 Greeks held antique Fusil Gras mle 1874 rifles. Twelve obsolescent St. Étienne Mle 1907 light machine-guns existed in the entire garrison. Forty miscellaneous LMGs provided additional firepower. Many Greek soldiers had fewer than thirty rounds of ammunition each. The British Commonwealth contingent included the 2nd New Zealand Division minus the 6th Brigade. The 19th Australian Brigade Group formed another main unit. The 14th Infantry Brigade of the British 6th Division rounded out the force. On the 17th of May, the garrison included about 15,000 Britons, 7,750 New Zealanders, 6,500 Australians and 10,200 Greeks. German forces used the new 7.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40 light gun which weighed as much as a standard field gun but offered half its range. A quarter of German paratroops jumped with an MP 40 submachine gun often paired with a bolt-action Karabiner 98k rifle. Most German squads carried an MG 34 machine gun. Heavy equipment like the Leichtgeschütz 40 were dropped using special triple-parachute harnesses to bear extra weight.
At 08:00 on the 20th of May 1941, German paratroopers jumped from dozens of Junkers Ju 52 aircraft near Maleme Airfield and Chania town. A company of III Battalion, 1st Assault Regiment lost 112 killed out of 126 men in the first hours. Four hundred of 600 men in III Battalion died on that first day. Many gliders following the paratroops were hit by mortar fire seconds after landing. The New Zealand and Greek defenders almost annihilated the glider troops who landed safely. Some paratroopers and gliders missed their objectives and set up defensive positions west of Maleme Airfield or in Prison Valley near Chania. Both forces were contained and failed to take the airfields initially. Towards evening, Germans slowly pushed New Zealanders back from Hill 107 which overlooked the airfield. Greek police and cadets took part with the 1st Greek Regiment combining with armed civilians to rout a detachment of German paratroopers dropped at Kastelli. The 8th Greek Regiment and Cretan elements severely hampered movement by the 95th Reconnaissance Battalion on Kolimbari and Paleochora. A second wave arrived in the afternoon dropping more paratroopers and gliders containing assault troops. One group attacked Rethymno at 16:15 while another struck Heraklion at 17:30 where defenders waited and inflicted many casualties. Among the paratroopers who landed was former world heavyweight champion boxer Max Schmeling holding rank of Gefreiter. He survived both the battle and the war.
Overnight, the 22nd New Zealand Infantry Battalion withdrew from Hill 107 leaving Maleme Airfield undefended. During previous days, Germans had cut communications between two westernmost companies and battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Andrew VC. Lack of communication meant the battalion appeared overrun in the west. Andrew requested reinforcement by the 23rd Battalion but Brigadier James Hargest denied it mistakenly believing that unit busy repulsing parachutists elsewhere. After a failed counterattack late on the 20th of May, Andrew withdrew under darkness with consent from Hargest. Captain Campbell commanding the westernmost company did not learn of withdrawal until early morning then also withdrew from west side of airfield. This misunderstanding cost Allies the airfield and allowed Germans to reinforce invasion force unopposed. In Athens, Student decided to concentrate on Maleme as area showing most progress. An early morning reconnaissance flight over Maleme Airfield proved unopposed. Germans quickly exploited withdrawal from Hill 107 to take control of Maleme Airfield just as sea landing occurred nearby. The Allies continued bombarding area while flew in units of 5th Mountain Division at night. Freyberg ordered counterattack to retake Maleme during night of 21/the 22nd of May. The 2/7th Battalion moved north to relieve 20th Battalion which would participate in attack. No transport existed for 2/7th Battalion and vehicles delayed by German aircraft. Counterattack began at 03:30 but failed because of German daylight air support.
Cretan civilians joined battle armed with whatever weapons gathered from kitchens or barns. Several German parachutists knifed clubbed to death in olive groves. One recorded incident saw elderly Cretan man clubbing parachutist death with walking cane before German could disentangle himself from parachute. Local priest teenage son broke into small village museum taking two rifles era Balkan Wars sniping at German paratroops landing zones. Mobs armed civilians joined Greek counterattacks Kastelli Hill Paleochora British New Zealand advisers hard pressed prevent massacres. Civilians checked Germans north west Heraklion town centre. As most Cretan partisans wore no uniforms insignments such armbands headbands Germans felt free constraints Hague Conventions killed armed unarmed civilians indiscriminately. Even before end battle civilians executed Missiria. Between the 2nd of June the 1st of August 195 persons village Alikianos vicinity killed mass shootings known Alikianos executions. On the 2nd of June several male citizens Kondomari executed firing squad captured film German army war correspondent. On the 3rd of June village Kandanos razed ground about 180 inhabitants killed. First resistance movement Crete established just two weeks capture. Throughout German occupation years followed reprisals retaliation involvement local population Cretan resistance continued. Villagers rounded up summarily executed worst incidents around 20 villages east Viannos west Ierapetra provinces looted burnt September 1943 more than 500 inhabitants massacred.
For fortnight Enigma intercepts described arrival Fliegerkorps XI Athens collection 27,000 registered tons shipping effect air attacks Crete began the 14th of May 1941. Postponement invasion revealed the 15th of May probable date given next day the 19th of May. German objectives Crete similar areas already prepared British foreknowledge increased confidence local commanders dispositions. London warned attack could come anytime after the 17th of May information Freyberg passed garrison. British authorities expected attack by 25,000 to 30,000 airborne troops 10,000 transported sea real figures 15,750 airborne sea late decrypts reduced uncertainty seaborne invasion. Germans captured message London marked Personal for General Freyberg translated German sent Berlin dated the 24th of May said where German troops previous day specified Germans next going attack Suda Bay. Antony Beevor 1991 P.D. Antill 2005 wrote Allied commanders knew invasion through Ultra intercepts. Freyberg informed air component German battle plan started prepare defence near airfields along north coast hampered lack modern equipment lightly armed paratroops about same firepower defenders if not more. Ultra intelligence detailed taken context misinterpreted. While emphasis placed airborne assault German messages also mentioned seaborne operations Freyberg expecting amphibious landing garrisoned coast reducing number men available defend airfield Maleme principal German objective. In 1993 F.H. Hinsley official historian British intelligence war wrote Germans had more casualties conquest Crete rest Greek campaign 7th Fliegerdivision decimated leaving Germans crippled airborne arm unit kind rebuilt.
German Air Ministry shocked number transport aircraft lost battle Student reflecting casualties suffered paratroopers concluded after war Crete death airborne force. Hitler believing airborne forces weapon surprise now lost advantage concluded days airborne corps over directed paratroopers employed ground-based troops subsequent operations Soviet Union. Battle Crete delayed Operation Barbarossa directly start date Barbarossa the 22nd of June 1941 set several weeks before Crete operation considered directive Mercury made plain preparations Merkur must interfere Barbarossa. Units assigned Merkur intended Barbarossa forced redeploy Poland Romania end May. Movement surviving units Greece not delayed transfer Fliegerkorps VIII north ready Barbarossa eased Royal Navy evacuation defenders. Delay Operation Barbarossa exacerbated late spring floods Poland. Considerable losses Luftwaffe during operation Mercury specifically regarding troop carrier planes affected capacity air power operations start Russian campaign. Additionally German parachute troops decimated Crete insufficient number men qualified carry huge-scale airborne operations necessary beginning invasion. Furthermore delay whole Balkan campaign including Battle Crete did allow exploiting strategic advantages German forces gained Eastern Mediterranean. With VIII Air Corps ordered Germany refitting before Crete secured significant command communication issues hampered redeployment whole formation ground personnel directly redeployed new bases Poland. Only six days initial assault Vice Chief Air Staff presciently wrote Army attach importance air superiority time invasion take steps protect aerodromes something more than men first second childhood. Churchill made RAF responsible defence bases RAF Regiment formed the 1st of February 1942.
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Common questions
When did Hitler sign Directive 28 ordering the invasion of Crete?
Hitler signed Directive 28 on the 25th of April 1941. This directive ordered an immediate invasion of Crete despite German Army High Command opposition.
What date was the Battle of Crete scheduled to begin and when did it actually start?
The operation was originally scheduled for the 16th of May 1941 but was postponed to the 20th of May due to weather and logistical delays. German paratroopers jumped from Junkers Ju 52 aircraft at 08:00 on the 20th of May 1941 near Maleme Airfield and Chania town.
How many British Commonwealth troops were present in the garrison during the battle?
On the 17th of May, the garrison included about 15,000 Britons, 7,750 New Zealanders, 6,500 Australians and 10,200 Greeks. Major-general Bernard Freyberg took command on the 30th of April 1941 after seven commanders served in seven months.
Which naval vessels were sunk by Luftwaffe attacks during the evacuation of Crete?
Cruiser Gloucester hit several bombs left behind due to air attacks sank killing 22 officers and 700 ratings. Battleship Fiji was disabled at 18:45 and later sunk at 20:15 by Junkers Ju 88 flown by Lieutenant Gerhard Brenner.
What happened to Cretan civilians following the German occupation of villages like Kondomari and Kandanos?
On the 2nd of June several male citizens Kondomari executed firing squad captured film German army war correspondent. On the 3rd of June village Kandanos razed ground about 180 inhabitants killed. Mass shootings known Alikianos executions occurred between the 2nd of June the 1st of August 195 persons village Alikianos vicinity killed.