Operation Barbarossa
On the 18th of December 1940, Adolf Hitler issued Führer Directive 21 to formally commit Germany to the invasion of the Soviet Union. The directive renamed Operation Otto to Operation Barbarossa, invoking the memory of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I, known as "red beard." German nationalists had long glorified this medieval Crusader king since the 19th century, claiming he slept in a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountains and would awaken to restore Germany during its greatest need. Hitler believed that conquering the Soviet Union would usher in his "Thousand-Year Reich" and fulfill a historical destiny. This ideological framing was not merely symbolic but dictated policy. As early as 1925, Hitler declared in Mein Kampf that Germany needed living space in the East. On the 10th of February 1939, he told army commanders that the next war would be purely a racial struggle between peoples. By November 1941, six months into the invasion, paramilitary death squads had murdered more than 500,000 Soviet Jews, a figure exceeding the number of Red Army soldiers killed in battle at that time. General Erich Hoepner informed the 4th Panzer Group that the war must aim at the annihilation of Russia and be waged with unparalleled harshness. Walther von Brauchitsch ordered troops to view the conflict as a struggle between two different races. The Nazi secret plan called for ethnic cleansing, executions, and enslavement of conquered populations. Only small percentages were to undergo Germanisation while others faced expulsion or death. Heinrich Himmler outlined plans where only men with truly Germanic blood would dwell in the East after the war.
On the 23rd of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in Moscow. A secret protocol divided eastern European border states into spheres of influence, allowing partition of Poland and Soviet occupation of Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Bessarabia. This pact stunned the world given the parties' mutual hostility and conflicting ideologies. For two years, Germany and the Soviet Union maintained reasonably strong diplomatic relations and fostered an important economic relationship. In 1940, they entered a trade pact where Soviets received German military equipment in exchange for raw materials like oil and wheat. Despite cordial relations, each side remained highly suspicious. The Soviet invasion of Bukovina in June 1940 went beyond their agreed sphere of influence. After Germany joined the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy, negotiations began about potential Soviet entry into that alliance. From 12 to the 14th of November 1940, Ribbentrop presented a draft treaty for Soviet entry into the Axis. Hitler had no intention of allowing this and stated all preparations for the East must continue regardless of outcomes. On the 25th of November 1940, the Soviet Union offered a written counter-proposal if Germany would refrain from interfering in its sphere of influence, but Germany did not respond. Joseph Stalin believed the overall military strength of the Soviet Union meant he had nothing to fear and anticipated an easy victory should Germany attack. He delayed reconstruction of defensive fortifications in border regions because he thought Hitler would be unlikely to open a two-front war while fighting Britain. When German soldiers swam across the Bug River to warn the Red Army of an impending attack on the 21st of June 1941, they were shot as enemy agents.
By the third week of February 1941, 680,000 German soldiers gathered in assembly areas on the Romanian-Soviet border. Hitler secretly moved upwards of 3 million German troops and approximately 690,000 Axis soldiers to Soviet border regions before the campaign began. Additional Luftwaffe operations included numerous aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory many months prior to the attack. The Germans deployed one independent regiment, one separate motorised training brigade, and 153 divisions including 104 infantry, 19 panzer, and 15 motorised infantry divisions. These forces were equipped with 6,867 armoured vehicles, 2,770, 4,389 aircraft amounting to 65 percent of the Luftwaffe, and 7,200, 23,435 artillery pieces. Finland slated 14 divisions for the invasion while Romania offered 13 divisions and eight brigades. The entire Axis force numbered 3.8 million personnel deployed across a front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea. Army Group North was to march through Latvia and Estonia into northern Russia then take or destroy Leningrad. Army Group Centre struck from Poland into Belorussia advancing to Smolensk and then Moscow. Army Group South targeted Ukraine taking Kiev before continuing eastward over steppes to control oil-rich Caucasus. Despite these preparations, neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated a long campaign lasting into winter. Adequate distribution of warm clothing and winterisation of tanks and artillery were not made. Hitler received final military plans on the 5th of December 1940 under codename Operation Otto but renamed it Barbarossa in honor of Frederick I. The Barbarossa Decree issued by Hitler on the 30th of March 1941 legally sanctioned eradication of all Communist political leaders and intellectual elites in Eastern Europe.
At around 03:15 on Sunday, the 22nd of June 1941, the Axis Powers commenced the invasion with bombing of major cities in Soviet-occupied Poland and artillery barrage on Red Army defences along the entire front. Air raids reached as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad and Sevastopol in Crimea. Roughly three million soldiers of the Wehrmacht went into action facing slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border. At noon, Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov broadcast news of the invasion calling for a victorious Patriotic War. In Germany, Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels announced the invasion that morning stating it was a march comparing with greatest ever seen. Hitler proclaimed to colleagues before three months had passed they would witness collapse of Russia like never seen in history. The Luftwaffe reportedly destroyed 1,489 aircraft on first day and over 3,100 during first three days. Hermann Göring distrusted reports and ordered figures checked but original figure proved conservative as over 2,000 Soviet aircraft estimated destroyed on first day alone. A Soviet archival document recorded loss of 3,922 Soviet aircraft in first three days against estimated loss of 78 German aircraft. By end of first week Luftwaffe achieved air supremacy over battlefields of all army groups though unable to extend dominance over vast western Soviet Union. According to war diaries of German High Command, Luftwaffe by the 5th of July lost 491 aircraft with 316 more damaged leaving only about 70 percent strength at start.
On the 22nd of June Army Group North attacked Soviet Northwestern Front breaking through its 8th and 11th Armies. Soviets immediately launched powerful counterattack against German 4th Panzer Group with 3rd and 12th Mechanised Corps but attack was defeated. On the 25th of June 8th and 11th Armies ordered withdraw to Western Dvina River where planned meeting up with 21st Mechanised Corps occurred. However Erich von Manstein's LVI Panzer Corps reached river first securing bridgehead across it forcing abandonment of river defences. On the 8th of July captured Pskov devastating Stalin Line defenses reaching Leningrad oblast. The 4th Panzer Group advanced about 100 kilometers from invasion start now only 100 kilometers from primary objective Leningrad. In Belorussia opening hours saw Luftwaffe destroy Western Front air force on ground while Abwehr paralyzed communication lines cutting off 4th Army headquarters. On same day 2nd Panzer Group crossed Bug River breaking through 4th Army bypassing Brest Fortress pressing toward Minsk while 3rd Panzer Group bypassed most of 3rd Army advancing toward Vilnius. By night of the 25th of June Soviet counterattack defeated commander of 6th Cavalry Corps captured. Same night Pavlov ordered all remnants of Western Front withdraw to Slonim toward Minsk. On the 27th of June 2nd and 3rd Panzer Groups met near Minsk capturing city next day completing encirclement of almost all Western Front in two pockets around Białystok and west of Minsk. Germans destroyed Soviet 3rd and 10th Armies inflicting serious losses on 4th, 11th and 13th Armies reporting capture of 324,000 Soviet troops, 3,300 tanks, 1,800 artillery pieces.
On the 2nd of July and through next six days rainstorm typical of Belarusian summers slowed progress of panzers from Army Group Centre allowing Soviet defences to stiffen. Delays gave Soviets time organize massive counterattack against Army Group Centre whose ultimate objective was Smolensk commanding road to Moscow. Facing Germans old Soviet defensive line held by six armies. On the 6th of July Soviets launched massive counterattack using V and VII Mechanised Corps of 20th Army colliding with German 39th and 47th Panzer Corps where Red Army lost 832 tanks of 2,000 employed during five days ferocious fighting. Germans defeated this counterattack thanks largely coincidental presence Luftwaffe squadron tank-busting aircraft. 2nd Panzer Group crossed Dnieper River closing in on Smolensk from south while 3rd Panzer Group after defeating Soviet counterattack closed on Smolensk from north. Trapped between pincers three Soviet armies. 29th Motorised Division captured Smolensk on the 16th of July yet gap remained between Army Group Centre until finally closed the 5th of August when upwards of 300,000 Red Army soldiers captured and 3,205 Soviet tanks destroyed. Four weeks into campaign Germans realized grossly underestimated Soviet strength. German troops used initial supplies General Bock quickly concluded not only Red Army offered stiff opposition but German difficulties also due logistical problems reinforcements provisions. Operations slowed allow resupply delay used adapt strategy new situation. Strained logistics poor roads made difficult wheeled vehicles foot infantry keep up faster armoured spearheads shortages boots winter uniforms becoming apparent. All three army groups suffered 179,500 casualties by the 2nd of August received only 47,000 replacements.
Six months into invasion paramilitary death squads murdered more than 500,000 Soviet Jews figure greater number Red Army soldiers killed battle then. Nazi propaganda portrayed war against Soviet Union ideological struggle between German National Socialism Jewish Bolshevism racial war disciplined Germans Jewish Romani Slavic peoples. Order from Führer stated paramilitary SS closely followed Wehrmacht advance execute all Soviet functionaries less valuable Asiatics Gypsies Jews. German army commanders cast Jews major cause behind partisan struggle view where partisan Jew there partisan where Jew partisan. Many saw war racial terms regarding Soviet enemies sub-human. After war began Nazis issued ban sexual relations Germans foreign slaves regulations enacted Eastern workers included death penalty sexual relations German. Heinrich Himmler secret memorandum Reflections Treatment Peoples Alien Races East dated the 25th of May 1940 outlined plans non-German populations East believed Germanisation process complete when East dwell men truly Germanic blood. Nazi secret plan prepared 1941 confirmed 1942 called new order ethnographical relations territories occupied Nazi Germany envisaged ethnic cleansing executions enslavement populations conquered countries very small percentages undergoing Germanisation expulsion depths Russia other fates while conquered territories Germanised. Plan had two parts small plan covered actions taken during war large plan covered policies after war won implemented gradually over 25 to 30 years.
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Common questions
When did Adolf Hitler issue Führer Directive 21 to commit Germany to the invasion of the Soviet Union?
Adolf Hitler issued Führer Directive 21 on the 18th of December 1940. This directive formally committed Germany to the invasion and renamed Operation Otto to Operation Barbarossa.
What was the purpose of renaming Operation Otto to Operation Barbarossa in 1941?
The name change invoked the memory of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I known as red beard. German nationalists had glorified this medieval Crusader king since the 19th century claiming he would awaken to restore Germany during its greatest need.
How many Axis personnel were deployed across the front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea?
The entire Axis force numbered 3.8 million personnel. These forces included upwards of 3 million German troops and approximately 690,000 Axis soldiers deployed before the campaign began.
On what date did the Axis Powers commence the invasion with bombing of major cities in Soviet-occupied Poland?
The Axis Powers commenced the invasion at around 03:15 on Sunday the 22nd of June 1941. Air raids reached as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad and Sevastopol in Crimea that same day.
When did Germans capture Smolensk after defeating a massive Soviet counterattack in July 1941?
German forces captured Smolensk on the 16th of July 1941. The gap between Army Group Centre was finally closed by the 5th of August when upwards of 300,000 Red Army soldiers were captured.