Art of ancient Egypt

• 1. Prehistoric Origins And Early Cultures

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  The desert pushed early ancestors of the Egyptians toward the Nile River around 6000 BC. Neolithic settlements began to appear all over Egypt as people adopted a more sedentary lifestyle. The Merimde culture flourished from about 5000 to 4200 BC at a large settlement site on the edge of the Western Nile Delta. People lived in small huts and produced simple undecorated pottery while raising cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. They buried their dead within the settlement and produced clay figurines including the first Egyptian life-size head made of clay. Badarian sites emerged between 4400 and 4000 BC near Der Tasa and used copper alongside stone tools. This chalcolithic period marked a shift from pure Stone Age technology to mixed material use. Naqada I culture lasted from about 4000 to 3500 BC and featured black-topped ware alongside white cross-line ware decorated with crossing sets of close parallel white lines. Naqada II culture developed from 3500 to 3200 BC after the site of Gerzeh and painted pottery mostly in dark red with pictures of animals, people, ships, and geometric symbols derived from animals. Wavy handles became common and elaborate until they were almost completely ornamental during this stage. Foreign objects like the Gebel el-Arak Knife handle entered Egypt showing contact with Mesopotamia. Silver appeared in this period and could only have been obtained from Asia Minor. Cylinder seals and recessed paneling architecture arrived as distinctively foreign forms entered the region. The route of trade remains difficult to determine but likely involved water routes through Byblos or the Red Sea. Naqada III period ran from about 3200 to 3000 BC and is generally taken to be identical with the Protodynastic period when Egypt was unified. Cosmetic palettes reached new sophistication during this era and were made almost exclusively from siltstone quarried at Wadi Hammamat. Many palettes were found at Hierakonpolis which served as a center of power in predynastic Upper Egypt.

• 2. Dynastic Evolution And Royal Iconography

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  The Early Dynastic Period began around 3100 BC following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. Cosmetic palettes reached a new level of sophistication while the Egyptian writing system experienced further development. Symbols were used together with pictorial descriptions initially before expanding to include more than 200 symbols by the end of the Third Dynasty. King Sneferu perfected the art of pyramid-building during the Old Kingdom which spanned c. 2686, 2181 BC. The pyramids of Giza were constructed under the kings Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure. Princess Nefertiabet likely daughter of Khufu appears in her Giza tomb dated between 2590-2565 BC. The Middle Kingdom lasted from around 2050 BC to around 1710 BC marking reunification under Mentuhotep II of the Eleventh Dynasty. Kings of the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties returned their focus to art after periods of division. The quality of artistic production for elite members reached a high point never surpassed though equaled during other periods. The Hyksos dynasty originating from the Levant did not produce court art but appropriated monuments by writing names like King Khyan on them. A large palace at Avaris was built in Levantine rather than Egyptian style most likely by Khyan. Seven known sphinxes called Tanite sphinxes depict Amenemhat III with prominent cheekbones and thick lion mane instead of traditional nemes headcloth. These statues were seized from Middle Kingdom cities and transported to capital Avaris where they were reinscribed with new owner names. Queen Hatshepshut led a widespread building campaign from 1473 to 1458 BC making significant additions to Karnak temple. She constructed an extensive mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri which provides well-preserved examples of Pre-Amarna period artwork. The massive three-level colonnaded temple was built into cliffs of Thebes and adorned with extensive painted relief showing battle scenes and expedition images. Pharaoh Akhenaten moved the capital to Tel el-Amarna around 1350 BC creating the most drastic interruption in Egyptian art style. Scenes often included overlapping figures creating sensation of crowd less common in earlier times. Depictions of Akhenaten gave him distinctly feminine qualities such as large hips, prominent breasts, larger stomach and thighs. Facial representations displayed elongated chin, full lips, and hollow cheeks as seen in sandstone Statue of Akhenaten. Nefertiti held significant cultic role during this period while talatat blocks allowed easy removal and reuse of temple materials. Horemheb sought to eliminate influence of Amarna art and reinstate tradition powerful cult of Amun after Akhenaten's death. Ramesside kings continued building colossal statues and contributed further to Temple at Karnak including Great Hypostyle Hall commissioned by Sety I. The hall consisted of 134 sandstone columns supporting 20-meter-high ceiling covering acre of land.

• 3. Symbolism Color And Material Science

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  Blue symbolized fertility birth and life-giving waters of Nile according to ancient Egyptian color terms. Green represented vegetation and rejuvenation while Osiris could be shown with green skin to assist rebirth. Black expressed fertile alluvial soil from which Egypt was born and carried connotations of fertility regeneration. Gold indicated divinity due to unnatural appearance and association with precious materials described as flesh of god. Silver referred to as white gold called bones of god by Egyptians. Red orange yellow were ambivalent colors associated with sun desert and Set. Faience ceramic material made of quartz sand lime plant ash or natron became widely used from Predynastic Period until Islamic times. Glazed composition term applied after resemblance to tin-glazed earthenwares produced at Faenza in medieval Italy. Glass technology perfected only in early 18th Dynasty though glassy materials faience and Egyptian blue manufactured earlier. Funerary objects of Amenhotep II included many glass artifacts demonstrating range different techniques. Glass workshops excavated at Amarna and Pi-Ramesses show production centers existed. Raw materials silica alkali lime readily available though ready-made ingots blue glass imported from Levant found Uluburun shipwreck off southern coast Turkey. Egyptian blue material distinct from faience glass made quartz alkali lime copper compounds heated fused crystalline mass uniform color. First attested Fourth Dynasty but particularly popular Ptolemaic Roman periods known caeruleum. Copper first metal exploited small beads found Badarian graves larger items produced later Predynastic Period combination mould-casting annealing cold-hammering. Production peaked Old Kingdom huge numbers copper chisels manufactured cut stone blocks pyramids. Golden treasure Tutankhamun symbolized wealth ancient Egypt illustrating importance gold pharaonic culture. Burial chamber royal tomb called house gold according Egyptian religion flesh gods made gold. Silver had import from Levant rarity initially gave greater value than gold readily available borders Egypt Nubia. Early examples silverwork bracelets Hetepheres Middle Kingdom silver became less valuable perhaps increased trade Middle East. Iron last metal exploited large scale Egyptians meteoritic iron used manufacture beads Badarian period advanced technology smelt iron not introduced Late Period. Lapis lazuli dark blue semi-precious stone highly valued symbolic association heavens imported long-distance trade routes mountains north-eastern Afghanistan considered superior all materials except gold silver. Colored glass faience provided cheap imitation lapis lazuli first attested Predynastic Period temporary interruption supply Second Third Dynasties probably reflects political changes ancient Near East thereafter used extensively jewelry small figurines amulets.

• 4. Sculpture Architecture And Spatial Design

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  Monumental sculpture temples tombs well known refined delicate small works exist much greater numbers. Distinctive pose standing statues facing forward one foot front other helpful balance strength piece singular pose used early history into Ptolemaic period though seated statues common as well. Famous row four colossal statues outside main temple Abu Simbel each show Rameses II typical scheme exceptionally large. Very early colossal Great Sphinx Giza never repeated avenues lined very large statues including sphinxes animals formed part many temple complexes. Most sacred cult image god temple usually held naos form relatively small boat barque holding image god apparently precious metal none known survived. By Dynasty IV 2680, 2565 BC idea Ka statue firmly established put tombs resting place ka portion soul good number less conventionalized statues well-off administrators wives many wood Egypt few places world climate allows wood survive millennia block statues. Reserve heads plain hairless heads especially naturalistic extent real portraiture ancient Egypt still debated. Early tombs contained small models slaves animals buildings objects boats later ushabti figures necessary deceased continue lifestyle afterlife great majority wooden sculpture lost decay probably used fuel. Small figures deities animal personifications very common popular materials pottery large numbers small carved objects figures gods toys utensils. Alabaster used expensive versions painted wood most common normal small models animals slaves possessions placed tombs provide afterlife. Strict conventions followed crafting statues specific rules governed appearance every Egyptian god sky god Horus represented falcon head funeral rites Anubis shown jackal head. Artistic works ranked compliance conventions conventions followed strictly over three thousand years appearance statues changed little. Conventions intended convey timeless non-ageing quality figure ka common relief difference representation men women women often represented idealistic young pretty rarely shown older maturity men shown either idealistic manner more realistic depiction sculptures men showed aged regeneration ageing positive thing women perpetually young. Stele upright tablet stone wood curved top painted carved text pictures numerous examples produced throughout history variety purposes including funerary votive commemorative. Funerary stelae attested early 1st Dynasty typically bore name titles deceased basic form evolved key component funerary equipment magical function hence 2nd Dynasty onward owner usually shown seated before offering table piled food drink Middle Kingdom offering formula generally inscribed top stele ensure perpetual supply offerings afterlife Votive stelae inscribed prayers deities dedicated worshipers seeking favorable outcome particular situation. Ear stele New Kingdom variety inscribed images human ears encourage deity listen prayer request Commemorative stelae produced proclaim notable achievements military victories establish frontiers Pyramidion capstone top pyramid called benbenet ancient Egyptian language associated pyramid whole sacred Benben stone. Pyramidia may covered gold leaf reflect rays sun Middle Kingdom often inscribed royal titles religious symbols Architects used sun-dried kiln-baked bricks fine sandstone limestone granite carefully planned work stones fit precisely since mud mortar used creating pyramids unknown how workers stones reached top records kept construction. When top structure completed artists decorated top down removing ramp sand went Exterior walls structures like pyramids contained few small openings Hieroglyphic pictorial carvings brilliant colors abundantly used decorate Egyptian structures many motifs scarab sacred beetle solar disk vulture described changes Pharaoh go become god.

• 5. Painting Techniques And Funerary Art

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  Not all Egyptian reliefs painted less-prestigious works tombs temples palaces merely painted flat surface Stone surfaces prepared whitewash rough layer coarse mud plaster smoother gesso layer above finer limestones take paint directly Pigments mostly mineral chosen withstand strong sunlight without fading Binding medium used painting remains unclear egg tempera various gums resins suggested true fresco painted thin layer wet plaster not used instead paint applied dried plaster called fresco a secco Italian After painting varnish resin usually applied protective coating many paintings exposure elements survived remarkably well those fully exposed walls rarely have Small objects wooden statuettes often painted using similar techniques Many ancient Egyptian paintings survived tombs sometimes temples due Egypt extremely dry climate Paintings made intent making pleasant afterlife deceased Themes included journeys through afterworld protective deities introducing deceased gods underworld such Osiris Some tomb paintings show activities deceased involved alive wished carry doing eternity From New Kingdom period Book Dead buried entombed person considered important introduction afterlife. Egyptian paintings painted way show side view front view animal person same time example painting shows head profile view body frontal view Main colors red blue green gold black yellow Paintings showing scenes hunting fishing lively close-up landscape backgrounds reeds water general Egyptian painting did not develop sense depth landscapes nor sense visual perspective figures rather varying size importance location rather location.

• 6. Daily Objects Jewelry And Personal Adornment

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  Ancient Egyptians exhibited love ornament personal decoration earliest Predynastic times Badarian burials contained strings beads glazed steatite shell ivory Jewelry gold silver copper faience attested early Predynastic period more varied materials introduced centuries preceding 1st Dynasty By Old Kingdom combination carnelian turquoise lapis lazuli established royal jewelry standard Middle Kingdom Less sophisticated pieces might use bone mother-of-pearl cowrie shells particular choice materials depended practical aesthetical symbolic considerations Some types jewelry remained perennially popular others went fashion first category bead necklaces bracelets armlets girdles Bead aprons first attested 1st Dynasty usekh broad collars became standard type early Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom fallen favor replaced finger-rings ear ornaments rings plugs New Kingdom jewelry generally elaborate garish earlier periods influenced styles Ancient Greece Levant Many fine examples found tomb Tutankhamun Jewelry royal private replete religious symbolism used display wealth rank wearer Royal jewels always most elaborate exemplified pieces found Dahshur Lahun made princesses 18th Dynasty favored courtiers rewarded gold honor sign royal favor Techniques jewelry-making reconstructed surviving artifacts tomb decoration jeweler workshop shown tomb Mereruka several New Kingdom tombs Thebes contain similar scenes Amulet small charm worn afford owner magical protection convey certain qualities lion amulet convey strength set-square amulet convey rectitude Attested Badarian period onward produced living dead Particular amulets placed specific places mummy wrappings heart scarab specialized form amulet protect heart deceased afterlife. Amulets made wide variety materials including faience glass precious stones color often playing important symbolic role wide variety forms depict sacred objects Djed pillar Tyet girdle Wedjad eye animals bull head amulets particularly common late Predynastic period hieroglyphs Ankh Sa From New Kingdom onward deities especially household deities Bes Taweret popular subjects amulets Scarab-shaped amulet protective amulet heart form scarab beetle manifestation creator solar deity Khepri symbol new life resurrection scarab beetle seen push ball dung along ground idea beetle rolling sun across sky subsequently young beetles observed hatch eggs inside ball hence idea creation life springs forth primordial mud heart scarab large scarab amulet wrapped mummy bandaging over deceased heart made range green dark-colored materials including faience glass glazed steatite schist feldspar hematite obsidian Black associated afterlife blue green birth life-giving waters Nile Pottery items deposited tombs dead represented interior parts body lungs liver smaller intestines removed before embalming Large number smaller objects enamel pottery also deposited dead Customary tomb walls crafted cones pottery tall engraved impressed legends relating dead occupants tombs cones usually contained names deceased titles offices held expressions appropriate funeral purposes.