Akhenaten

• 1. Royal Lineage And Family

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  The future Akhenaten was born Amenhotep, a younger son of pharaoh Amenhotep III and his principal wife Tiye. He had an elder brother named Thutmose who served as crown prince until his early death around the thirtieth regnal year of their father. This event placed Akhenaten next in line for Egypt's throne. The young prince also had four or five sisters including Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and possibly Beketaten. His own marriage to Nefertiti occurred either shortly before or after he took the throne according to inscriptions from building projects. A secondary wife named Kiya is known from surviving texts though her exact status remains debated by scholars. Some historians suggest she might be the mother of Tutankhamun while others propose she was a Mitanni princess named Tadukhipa. Akhenaten's other attested consorts included daughters of foreign rulers such as Šatiya and Burna-Buriash II. Evidence suggests he could have had seven or eight children based on various inscriptions found across Egypt. Six daughters are well documented with names like Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten Tasherit, Neferneferure, and Setepenre. Their births spanned from regnal year one through eleven. Tutankhamun most likely emerged as Akhenaten's son though uncertainty persists regarding whether Nefertiti or another wife bore him. Smenkhkare remains an enigmatic figure who may have been Akhenaten's eldest son with an unknown wife or perhaps his younger brother. Some historians argue that Akhenaten married some of his own daughters to father a male heir despite historical parallels being rare. The oldest daughter Meritaten served as Great Royal Wife to Smenkhkare yet also appears listed alongside pharaohs in boxes from Tutankhamun's tomb. Letters written to Akhenaten refer to Meritaten as mistress of the house indicating her high status within the royal court.

• 2. Religious Revolution And Atenism

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  In Year Five of his reign Amenhotep IV took decisive steps to establish the Aten as the sole god of Egypt. He disbanded priesthoods of all other gods and diverted income from those cults to support the Aten. To emphasize complete allegiance he officially changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten meaning Effective for the Aten. By Year Nine he declared that Aten was not merely supreme but the only worshipable god existing anywhere. Orders were issued defacing Amun temples throughout Egypt while inscriptions containing plural references to gods were removed entirely. This shift included banning images except for a rayed solar disc where rays appeared to represent unseen spirit of Aten. All life on Earth depended on this visible sunlight according to new theological frameworks. Representations of Aten always carried hieroglyphic footnotes stating they could never fully capture something transcending creation itself. The god's name evolved from Living Re-Horakhty to Living Re ruler of horizon rejoicing in name of Re father returned as Aten removing connections to Shu and Re-Horakhty. The Great Hymn to the Aten best distills these beliefs celebrating sun and daylight while recounting dangers when sun sets. One passage declares O Sole God beside whom there is none! You made earth as you wished you alone. Another states You are in my heart and there is none who knows you except your son. These texts positioned Akhenaten as sole intermediary between people and divine force. Courtiers sometimes changed names to remove patronage of other gods placing themselves under Aten or Ra instead. Yet archaeological finds at Amarna reveal many ordinary residents wore talismans of household-and-childbirth gods Bes and Taweret openly. A cache of royal jewelry found near Amarna tombs includes finger rings referring to Mut wife of Amun suggesting tolerance persisted until perhaps unknown events toward reign end. Many citizens chose gouge references to god Amun even on minor personal items like scarabs or make-up pots fearing accusation of having Amunist sympathies.

• 3. Founding The Capital At Amarna

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  Around same time changing his royal titulary Akhenaten decreed new capital city be built called Akhetaten meaning Horizon of Aten better known today as Amarna. He selected site halfway between Thebes and Memphis on east bank Nile where wadi natural dip formed silhouette resembling horizon hieroglyph. Inscriptions stated appropriateness because location was not property of any god goddess ruler female ruler nor anyone able claim it. City construction utilized substantially smaller building blocks than previous pharaohs used measuring by 1 ancient Egyptian cubits making work more efficient due to standardized weight. By regnal year eight Akhetaten reached state where royal family could occupy it though only most loyal subjects followed them there. Construction work began stopping in Thebes during years five through eight while village working on Valley Kings tombs relocated to workers' village at Akhetaten. Building continued elsewhere including larger cult centers like Heliopolis and Memphis which also received temples dedicated to Aten. Great Temple of Aten Small Aten Temple royal residences records office government buildings comprised planned city center. Some structures ordered built directly from boundary stela decree founding city. Theban Aten temples begun were abandoned when move occurred leaving behind some 36,000 decorated blocks later revealed when dismantled by archaeologists. These preserved many elements original relief scenes inscriptions despite eventual destruction under successors. Boundary stelae marking city limits remain key evidence historians know most about life connected with founding Akhetaten.

• 4. Foreign Policy And International Relations

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  The Amarna letters provide crucial diplomatic texts discovered between 1887 and 1979 named after modern name for capital Akhetaten. They comprise clay tablet messages exchanged among Amenhotep III Akhenaten Tutankhamun various subjects military outposts rulers vassal states foreign powers Babylonia Assyria Syria Canaan Alashiya Arzawa Mitanni Hittites. In preceding two centuries following expulsion Hyksos kingdom influence increased greatly reaching new heights under Thutmose III who ruled approximately hundred years before Akhenaten. Egypt's expansion led confrontation Mitanni ending alliance though slowly power started wane. Pharaohs aimed maintain balance through marriages like union Tadukhipa daughter Mitanni king Tushratta yet unable oppose rise Hittites around Syria. Early reign concern grew regarding expanding power Hittite Empire Šuppiluliuma I successful attack Mitanni disrupted entire international balance ancient Middle East causing some vassals switch allegiances time proved true. Group allies attempting rebel captured wrote begging Akhenaten troops but he responded most pleas failing save Rib-Hadda Byblos besieged state Amurru under Abdi-Ashirta later Aziru son Abdi-Ashirta despite numerous pleas. Rib-Hadda wrote total sixty letters pleading aid pharaoh wearied constant correspondences once told Rib-Hadda You one writes more all mayors Egyptian vassals EA 124. What Rib-Hadda did not comprehend Egyptian king would organize dispatch entire army north preserve political status quo several minor city states fringes Asiatic Empire. Exile from Byblos coup brother Ilirabih mentioned letter appealing vain aid turned sworn enemy place back throne promptly dispatched Sidon executed almost certainly. Several late nineteenth twentieth century Egyptologists interpreted letters mean pacifist neglected foreign policy favoring internal reforms Henry Hall believed succeeded obstinate doctrinaire love peace causing far more misery world half dozen elderly militarists could done James Henry Breasted said unfit cope situation demanding aggressive man affairs skilled military leader. Others noted counter conventional view neglecting territories favoring reforms Norman de Garis Davies praised emphasis diplomacy war James Baikie fact no evidence revolt within borders whole reign surely ample proof abandonment royal duties assumed. Dozens letters detail Akhenaten Amenhotep III sent Egyptian Nubian troops armies archers chariots horses ships only known campaign second twelfth year ordered Viceroy Kush Tuthmose lead expedition quell rebellion raids settlements Nile Nubian nomadic tribes victory commemorated two stelae discovered Amada Buhen Wolfgang Helck considered small-scale police operation Alan Schulman called war major proportions Cyril Aldred proposed unsuccessful war around Gezer Marc Gabolde argued unsuccessful campaign Kadesh John Coleman Darnell Colleen Manassa argued fought Hittites control Kadesh unsuccessful recaptured 60, 70 years later Seti I.

• 5. Artistic Style And Iconography

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  Styles art flourished during reigns Akhenaten immediate successors known Amarna art markedly different traditional ancient Egypt representations realistic expressionistic naturalistic especially animals plants people conveying action movement non-royal royal individuals than traditionally static depictions. Traditional pharaoh divine nature expressed repose immobility portrayals Akhenaten greatly differ depictions other pharaohs idealized stereotypically beautiful fashion youthful athletic unconventional unflattering sagging stomach broad hips thin legs thick thighs large almost feminine breasts thin exaggeratedly long face thick lips. Based unusual artistic representations including potential gynecomastia androgyny some argued genetic abnormalities aromatase excess syndrome sagittal craniosynostosis Antley-Bixler syndrome. Results published genetic studies 2010 purported mummy found signs gynecomastia Antley-Bixler though results since questioned arguing symbolic interpretation Dominic Montserrat states broad consensus among Egyptologists exaggerated forms physical portrayal read literally. God referred mother father humankind suggest made look androgynous artwork symbol androgyny Aten requiring symbolic gathering attributes creator god physical body king display earth multiple life-giving functions claimed title Unique One Re directed artists contrast common people radical departure idealized traditional image. Depictions members court especially royal family also exaggerated stylized overall different traditional art significantly only time history Egyptian royal art family life depicted mid-action relaxed casual intimate situations taking part decidedly naturalistic activities showing affection holding hands kissing. Nefertiti appears beside king alone daughters actions usually reserved pharaoh smiting enemy traditional depiction male pharaohs suggesting enjoyed unusual status queen Early artistic representations indistinguishable husband except regalia soon after move new capital features specific hers Questions remain beauty portraiture idealism.

• 6. Death And Posthumous Erasure

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  Akhenaten died his seventeenth year wine docket evidence found Amarna initially buried tomb Royal Wadi east Akhetaten order construct bury commemorated boundary stela delineating capital borders Let tomb made eastern mountain burial millions jubilees Aten decreed. Chamber easily detected fully finished rest unfinished rock cut chambers rooms likely meant inter other members royal family such queen Nefertiti Work stopped when family moved Thebes abandoned Amarna under son Tutankhamun about three years death. Sarcophagus destroyed left necropolis reconstructed twentieth century now Egyptian Museum Cairo 2019. Mummy removed royal tombs after Tutankhamun abandoned Akhetaten returned Thebes most likely moved tomb KV55 Valley Kings near Thebes later desecrated Ramesside period. Whether Smenkhkare enjoyed brief independent reign unclear ruled less than year if outlived next successor thought Neferneferuaten ruling Egypt about two years succeeded Tutankhaten country administered vizier future pharaoh Ay. Identification mummy found that tomb controversial today repeatedly examined since discovery 1907 Zahi Hawass led team researchers medical DNA analysis results published 2010 identified father Tutankhamun thus most probably Akhenaten study validity called question discussion results does not discuss Tutankhamun father siblings share genetic markers if Tutankhamun father Akhenaten DNA indicate brother possibly Smenkhkare. With death Aten cult founded fell favor gradually then decisive finality Tutankhaten changed name Tutankhamun Year Two reign abandoned city Akhetaten Successors attempted erase Akhenaten family historical record. Reign Horemheb last pharaoh Eighteenth Dynasty first unrelated Akhenaten family Egyptians started destroy temples Aten reuse building blocks new construction projects including newly restored god Amun. Seti I restored monuments Amun had god's name re-carved inscriptions removed Akhenaten ordered excised Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten Tutankhamun Ay official lists pharaohs appear Amenhotep III immediately succeeded Horemheb. Under Ramessides succeeding Seti Akhetaten gradually destroyed building material reused across country constructions Hermopolis negative attitudes illustrated inscriptions tomb scribe Mose Mes reign referred time enemy Akhet-Aten Jacobus Van Dijk Jan Assmann believe reign Amarna period started gradual decline Egyptian government power pharaoh standing society religious life.