Amenhotep III
Amenhotep III became pharaoh around 1401 BC, the son of Thutmose IV and a minor wife named Mutemwiya. He claimed divine birth at Luxor Temple, stating that the god Amun had taken his father's form to father him with Mutemwiya. In Regnal Year 2, he married Tiye, daughter of Yuya and Thuya, who served as Great Royal Wife throughout his reign. The couple produced at least two sons: Crown Prince Thutmose and Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaten. Several daughters frequently appear on statues and reliefs from this period, including Sitamun, Henuttaneb, Iset, Nebetah, and Beketaten. Most daughters are well attested in art, though Nebetah appears only once on a colossal limestone group from Medinet Habu. Beketaten is found solely within Amarna contexts.
Later in life, Amenhotep expanded his harem significantly through diplomatic marriages. In Regnal Year 10, he wed Gilukhepa, daughter of Shuttarna II of Mitanni. Around Regnal Year 36, he married Tadukhepa, daughter of Tushratta of Mitanni. Other wives included daughters of Babylonian kings Kurigalzu and Kadashman-Enlil, plus rulers from Arzawa and Ammia. In the final decade of his rule, he elevated at least two of his own daughters, Sitamun and Iset, to Great Royal Wife status. Jar-label inscriptions from Regnal Year 30 confirm Sitamun's elevation. While uncommon among common Egyptians, royal incest was not unusual. A restored sculpture shows Sitamun with a young prince beside her, leading some theories that she may have been mother to Smenkhkare or Tutankhamun.
Commemorative scarabs became a defining feature of his administration. Over 200 large stone scarabs have been found across regions stretching from Syria to Nubia. Marriage scarabs affirmed Amenhotep's divine power and Tiye's legitimacy. Five additional scarabs recorded Gilukhepa's arrival with a retinue of 317 women. This marked the first of many princesses entering the pharaoh's family. The scarabs were distributed widely, serving both propaganda and administrative purposes.
Artists created jewelry, ornaments, and stelae specifically for major events like the Sed festivals. Craftsmen worked under scribe Nebmerutef, who coordinated every step of these celebrations. Temples rose along the Nile, and statues were erected to honor the occasion. The scale of production reflected Egypt's unprecedented wealth during this period.
Diplomatic correspondence survives in the Amarna Letters, documents found near modern-day Amarna. These letters came from rulers of Assyria, Mitanni, Babylon, Hatti, and other states. They typically included requests for gold and gifts from Amenhotep. One letter, EA 4, quotes Babylonian king Kadashman-Enlil I rejecting an entreaty to marry one of the pharaoh's daughters. This refusal may have followed Egyptian custom allowing throne claims through royal princess descent or served
as diplomatic strategy enhancing Egypt's prestige.
Another exchange involved Tushratta sending a statue of Ishtar of Nineveh late in Amenhotep's reign. Letter EA 23 arrived in Egypt dated regnal year 36, fourth month of winter, day 1. Scholars once assumed the statue was sent to cure Amenhotep's ailments, including painful abscesses in his teeth. However, William L. Moran's analysis discounts this theory. Tushratta never mentioned healing purposes in the letter. Instead, he likely intended to bless the marriage between Amenhotep and Tadukhepa.
Amenhotep adopted the epithet Aten-Tjehen, meaning Dazzling Sun Disk, in Regnal Year 30. This showed increased interest in the Aten god, elevating it from minor deity to solar disc with royal patronage. He did not promote Aten as exclusive god during his own reign. His main devotion remained toward Amun-Ra, combining Thebes' deity Amun and northern sun god Ra. Yet he named a royal boat, a palace called Malkata, and his youngest daughter Beketaten after Aten.
Three Sed festivals were celebrated in Regnal Years 30, 34, and 37 at Malkata Palace in Western Thebes. A temple of Amun and festival hall were built specifically for these events. Based on evidence from Queen Tiye's steward Khenruef, each celebration may have lasted two to eight
months. Amenhotep wanted them far more spectacular than past ones. He appointed Amenhotep son of Hapu to plan the ceremony, possibly because he was one of few courtiers alive who had served at the last Sed Festival held for Amenhotep II.
Scribes gathered ritual information from ancient funerary temples. Temples rose along the Nile while craftsmen created ornaments including jewelry and stelae. Nebmerutef directed every step. The king changed costume at each major activity. One highlight involved dual coronation: enthroned separately for Upper Egypt wearing white crown then red crown for Lower Egypt. Afterward, Amenhotep transcended from near-god to fully divine status.
The palace of Malkata, known as Per-Hay or House of Rejoicing, stood as largest royal residence in Egypt. Construction began around Regnal Year 11 and continued until the king moved there permanently by Regnal Year 29. Built mostly from mud-brick, it became his residence during most later years. Excavations revealed a settlement called Dazzling Aten nearby, housing craftsmen and laborers working on royal projects with its own bakery and cemetery.
Amenhotep built extensively at Karnak Temple, adding Luxor temple with two pylons and colonnade behind new entrance. He also constructed new temple to goddess Ma'at. The king dismantled Fourth Pylon of Amun Temple to build Third Pylon, creating new entrance flanked by columns with open papyrus capitals. Forecourt between Third and Fourth Pylons
featured scenes of sacred funerary barques of deities Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Work started on Tenth Pylon as well.
His enormous mortuary temple on west bank Nile was once largest religious complex in Thebes. However, built too close to floodplain, it reduced to ruins within less than two hundred years. Much masonry purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction. Only gateway remained standing: Colossi of Memnon, two massive stone statues depicting Amenhotep high. Six hundred statues of Sekhmet goddess erected in Temple of Mut south of Thebes. Two giant statues toppled by earthquake in 1200 BC reconstructed from over 200 fragments and re-erected at northern gate of king's funerary temple.
Amenhotep's greatest attested regnal date is Year 38, appearing on wine jar-label dockets from Malkata. He may have lived briefly into unrecorded Year 39 before dying prior to that year's wine harvest. Reliefs from Soleb temple wall and scenes from tomb of Kheruef depict him visibly weak and sick. Scientists believe final years included arthritis and obesity. Forensic examination revealed worn cavity-pitted teeth inflicting constant pain.
Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded the pharaoh died between age 40 and 50. His mummy shows unusually heavy subcutaneous stuffing making it appear more lifelike. Museum inventory number CG 61074 identifies the specimen. During Third Intermediate Period reign of Smendes, mummy moved to cache KV35 with other Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasty pharaohs until discovered by Victor
Loret in 1898. In April 2021, mummy transferred to National Museum of Egyptian Civilization during Pharaohs' Golden Parade alongside seventeen other kings and four queens.
Foreign leaders communicated grief at death. Tushratta expressed sorrow over loss of alliance. Tiye outlived husband by at least twelve years, mentioned in Amarna letters dated son's reign and depicted at royal dinner table in Akhenaten's years 9 and 12 within Huya's tomb.
Modern genetic analysis confirmed Amenhotep III fathered both KV55 mummy identified as Akhenaten and The Younger Lady, sibling parents of grandson Tutankhamun. A 2020 study traced family lineage via Y-chromosomes and mtDNA. Partial profile obtained showed he shares YDNA haplogroup R1b with son and grandson, upholding earlier family tree outline though specific clade undetermined. Mitochondrial haplogroup found H2b associated with migrations from Pontic-Caspian steppe to South Asia spreading Indo-Iranian languages.
In 2022, S.O.Y. Keita analyzed eight Short Tandem loci data from Hawass et al. studies seeking familial relations and pathological features among New Kingdom royal mummies including Tutankhamun, Amenhotep III, and Ramesses III. Using Popaffiliator algorithm differentiating Eurasians, Sub-Saharan Africans, East Asians, he concluded majority had affinity with Sub-Saharan Africans in one analysis.
He emphasized complexity of ethnic attributions cautioning royal mummies may have other affiliations obscured by typological categories where different data algorithms might yield varying results.
Historians William Stiebling and archaeologist Susan N. Helft note conflicting DNA analyses failed establishing consensus on ancient Egyptian genetic makeup. In 2025 biochemist Jean-Philippe Gourdine reviewed genetic data published General History of Africa Volume IX expanding STR analysis co-performed with Keita on Amarna royal mummies. Analysis found strong affinities current sub-Saharan populations ranging 41 percent to 93.9 percent compared to 4.6 percent to 41 percent for Eurasia and 0.3 percent to 16 percent for Asia.
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Common questions
When did Amenhotep III become pharaoh of Egypt?
Amenhotep III became pharaoh around 1401 BC as the ninth ruler of the Eighteenth dynasty. He was the son of Thutmose IV and a minor wife named Mutemwiya.
Who were the wives of Amenhotep III during his reign?
Amenhotep III married Tiye, daughter of Yuya and Thuya, who served as Great Royal Wife throughout his reign. Later in life he wed Gilukhepa and Tadukhepa from Mitanni and elevated daughters Sitamun and Iset to Great Royal Wife status.
What happened to the mortuary temple built by Amenhotep III on the west bank Nile?
The enormous mortuary temple reduced to ruins within less than two hundred years because it was built too close to the floodplain. Much masonry was purloined by Merneptah and later pharaohs for their own construction leaving only the Colossi of Memnon standing.
How old was Amenhotep III when he died according to forensic analysis?
Australian anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith concluded the pharaoh died between age 40 and 50 based on examination of his mummy. Scientists believe final years included arthritis obesity and worn cavity-pitted teeth inflicting constant pain.
Did Amenhotep III father Akhenaten and Tutankhamun's parents?
Modern genetic analysis confirmed Amenhotep III fathered both KV55 mummy identified as Akhenaten and The Younger Lady sibling parents of grandson Tutankhamun. A 2020 study traced family lineage via Y-chromosomes and mtDNA showing shared haplogroup R1b with son and grandson.