Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of being. It serves as a subdiscipline of metaphysics focused on the most general features of reality. The term encompasses all of existence and every entity within it. To articulate the basic structure of being, ontology examines commonalities among all things. It investigates their classification into basic types such as particulars and universals. Particulars are unique non-repeatable entities like the person Socrates. Universals are general repeatable entities like the color green. Another distinction exists between concrete objects existing in space and time. A tree serves as an example of a concrete object. Abstract objects exist outside space and time like the number 7. Systems of categories aim to provide a comprehensive inventory of reality. They employ categories such as substance property relation state of affairs and event.
A central distinction in ontology lies between particular and universal entities. Particulars also called individuals are unique non-repeatable entities like the Taj Mahal or Mars. Universals are general repeatable entities like the form circularity or the virtue courage. Universals express aspects or features shared by particulars. Mount Everest and Mount Fuji are particulars characterized by the universal mountain. Properties describe characteristics of things. They are features or qualities possessed by an entity. Essential properties must be had by an entity while accidental ones can be lost. Having three sides is an essential property of a triangle whereas being red is accidental. Relations are ways how two or more entities stand to one another. Being east of is a relation as in Kathmandu is east of New Delhi. Substances play an important role as the particular entities that underlie and support properties. When a tomato ripens it loses the property green and acquires the property red. States of affairs are complex particular entities that have several other entities as components. The state of affairs Socrates is wise has two components: the individual Socrates and the property wise. Events are particular entities that occur in time like the fall of the Berlin Wall.
The roots of ontology lie in ancient philosophy with speculations about the nature of being. Discussions of the essence of reality appear in the Upanishads dating from 700 BCE. Samkhya formulated an atheistic dualist ontology identifying pure consciousness and matter as foundational principles. In ancient China Laozi's Taoism examined the underlying order known as Tao. Presocratic philosophers in Greece aimed to provide rational explanations starting in the 6th century BCE. Parmenides c. 515, 450 BCE is sometimes considered the founder of ontology due to his explicit discussion of being and non-being. Plato 427, 347 BCE developed his theory of forms distinguishing unchangeable perfect forms from matter. Aristotle 384, 322 BCE suggested an elaborate system of categories introducing substance as primary being. Boethius 477, 524 CE suggested universals can exist not only in matter but also in the mind. Thomas Aquinas 1224, 1274 CE refined fundamental distinctions between existence and essence. William of Ockham c. 1287, 1347 CE proposed a principle to decide between theories using the smallest number of elements.
Ontological realism asserts that there are objective facts about what exists and what the nature of being is. This view denies claims by ontological anti-realists who say no substantive facts exist one way or another. Rudolf Carnap argued that ontological statements depend on the framework of the speaker. Platonic realists claim universals exist independent of both mind and particular objects. Aristotelian realism rejects this saying universals exist only as long as objects exemplify them. Conceptualism states universals exist only in the mind as concepts people use to categorize the world. Nominalists defend strong anti-realism saying universals have no existence at all. Mathematical Platonism says mathematical objects like numbers are as real as physical atoms. Modal realism theory posits countless possible worlds as real and concrete as the actual world. Materialism says everything is material meaning mental phenomena exist as aspects of matter. Idealists argue everything is mental understanding physical phenomena as ideas perceived by conscious minds. Dualists state mind and matter exist as independent principles either distinct substances or different properties.
Conceptual analysis proceeds by examining component parts and necessary conditions under which a concept applies. Eidetic variation aims to identify essential features by varying imagined examples until unchangeable traits remain. The transcendental method begins with an observation that an entity exists then studies its repercussions. Intuition-based methods rely on non-inferential impressions about general principles used to build systems. Thought experiments evoke new intuitions by imagining situations relevant to ontological issues. Naturalistic methods rely on insights from natural sciences to determine what exists. Willard Van Orman Quine analyzed ontological commitments of scientific theories to solve problems. Principles of theory choice offer guidelines for assessing advantages and disadvantages rather than construction. Ockham's Razor states simple theories are preferable using few basic types or fundamental entities. Ontological engineering creates conceptual models of specific domains in formal languages. The Cyc method Grüninger and Fox's methodology and METHONTOLOGY provide instructions for these steps.
Formal ontology divides objects into categories based on forms they exemplify using tools of formal logic. Applied ontology examines application of theories to specific disciplines like computer science and information science. Gene Ontology serves as a comprehensive framework for standardized representation of gene-related information across species. Protein Ontology provides a formal framework for protein-related entities and their relationships. Environment Ontology focuses on ecosystems and environmental processes. Friend of a Friend offers a conceptual framework representing relations between people and interests. Upper ontologies like Suggested Upper Merged Ontology apply general categories to most domains. Anthropology has seen increased attention since the 1990s termed the ontological turn. Indigenous communities often ascribe intentionality to non-human entities like plants forests or rivers. This outlook known as animism emphasizes interconnectedness of all living entities. The ontological argument proposed by Anselm of Canterbury attempts to prove existence of God defining Him as greatest conceivable being.
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Common questions
What is ontology and what does it study?
Ontology is the philosophical study of being that serves as a subdiscipline of metaphysics focused on the most general features of reality. It encompasses all existence and every entity within it to articulate the basic structure of being.
Who founded ontology and when did discussions begin?
Parmenides c. 515, 450 BCE is sometimes considered the founder of ontology due to his explicit discussion of being and non-being. Discussions of the essence of reality appear in the Upanishads dating from 700 BCE with speculations about the nature of being.
How do particulars differ from universals in ontology?
Particulars are unique non-repeatable entities like the person Socrates or the Taj Mahal while universals are general repeatable entities like the color green. Universals express aspects or features shared by particulars such as Mount Everest and Mount Fuji characterized by the universal mountain.
When did ancient philosophy develop ontological theories?
Presocratic philosophers in Greece aimed to provide rational explanations starting in the 6th century BCE. Plato 427, 347 BCE developed his theory of forms distinguishing unchangeable perfect forms from matter and Aristotle 384, 322 BCE suggested an elaborate system of categories introducing substance as primary being.
What methods does ontology use to analyze concepts?
Conceptual analysis proceeds by examining component parts and necessary conditions under which a concept applies using tools like eidetic variation and the transcendental method. Naturalistic methods rely on insights from natural sciences to determine what exists while Ockham's Razor states simple theories are preferable using few basic types or fundamental entities.