Akbar

• 1. Child King In Exile

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  On the 15th of October 1542, Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar drew his first breath inside the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot. His parents had fled westward after Humayun lost battles at Chausa and Kannauj to Sher Shah Suri. The local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad granted them refuge in Sindh. Akbar grew up in Kabul under the watchful eyes of his uncles Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza. He learned to hunt and fight but never mastered reading or writing himself. Evenings brought someone else to read aloud while he listened with a remarkable memory. At nine years old, he received his first appointment as governor of Ghazni Province. That same year, he married Hindal's daughter Ruqaiya Sultan Begum when both were fourteen. Humayun died on the 20th of November 1551, leaving his youngest brother Hindal dead in battle against Kamran's forces. When Humayun finally reconquered Delhi in 1555, he died just months later. Bairam Khan concealed this death to prepare for succession. On the 14th of February 1556, the fourteen-year-old Akbar stood upon a newly constructed platform in Kalanaur, Punjab. He was proclaimed Shahanshah, King of Kings, by Bairam Khan who ruled until Akbar came of age.

• 2. Wars For Northern India

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  The Second Battle of Panipat occurred on the 5th of November 1556 north of Delhi. Hemu, a minister and general of one Sur rulers, had expelled Mughals from the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Bairam Khan re-marshalled the army before Hemu could consolidate power. The Mughal forces defeated Hemu and the Sur army that day. Soon after, they occupied Delhi then Agra. Akbar made a triumphant entry into Delhi where he stayed for a month. He returned to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah Suri who fled east to Bengal. In 1558, Akbar took possession of Ajmer after defeating its Muslim ruler. The Mughals besieged Gwalior Fort, a stronghold north of the Narmada river. By 1559, they launched a drive south into Rajputana and Malwa. Disputes between Akbar and regent Bairam Khan ended expansion temporarily. At eighteen years old, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan following a court dispute in spring 1560. Maham Anga urged him to take active part managing Empire affairs. Bairam Khan chose pilgrimage over continuing his court service. He was assassinated by Afghans led by Mubarak Khan Lohani en route to Mecca. In 1560, Akbar resumed military operations against Baz Bahadur at Sarangpur. Adham Khan retained spoils and slaughtered surrendered garrisons including wives and children. Akbar personally rode to Malwa to relieve Adham Khan of command. Later, Adham Khan confronted Akbar again in late 1561. The emperor threw him from a terrace twice until death came.

• 3. Reforms And Revenue

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  Akbar reorganized sections with detailed regulations for central government administration. A wazir headed revenue department responsible for finances and management of jagir land. Mir bakshi served as head of military appointed from leading nobles. Intelligence gathering fell under mir bakshi who made recommendations for appointments. Mir saman supervised imperial household including harems and royal bodyguard functioning. Chief qazi headed judiciary organization responsible for religious beliefs and practices. Village remained primary unit of revenue assessment under Sher Shah Suri system. Cultivated areas measured and taxed through fixed rates based on crop type productivity. Prices prevailing at imperial court often exceeded countryside prices burdening peasantry. Decentralized annual assessment system introduced corruption among local officials abandoned in 1580. New calculation method used one-third average produce previous ten years paid state cash. Raja Todar Mal set out system in memorandum submitted 1582, 1583. Lands fallow or uncultivated assessed concessional rates. Zamindars required providing loans agricultural implements times need encouraging farmers plough land sow high-quality seeds. Peasants held hereditary right cultivate land paying land revenue. Revenue officials guaranteed three-quarters salary remaining quarter dependent full realisation assessed revenue. Akbar encouraged improvement extension agriculture helping peasants during flood drought harvest failures.

• 4. Faith And Debate

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  In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana House of Worship at Fatehpur Sikri inviting theologians mystics selected courtiers discuss spirituality matters initially restricted Muslims acrimonious discussions resulted shouting abusing each other. Upset by this outcome, Akbar opened hall people all religions atheists extending scope validity Quran nature God shocking orthodox theologians seeking discredit him circulating rumors desire forsake Islam. Debates grew more bitter leading discontinuance 1582. Interaction convinced Akbar despite differences religions had several good practices combine new movement Din-i-Ilahi. Virtues included generosity forgiveness abstinence prudence wisdom kindness piety respecting celibacy enforcing chastity discouraging animal slaughter no sacred scriptures priestly hierarchy. Aziz Koka wrote letter from Mecca 1594 arguing discipleship amounted nothing more desire portray superiority religious matters. Akbar changed name Prayag Allahabad pronouncing ilahabad 1583 commemorating Din-e-Ilahi. Some scholars claim theory new religion misconception arising erroneous translations Abul Fazl work British historians later accepted policy sulh-e-kul formed essence adopted general imperial administrative policy forming basis religious tolerance. In 1579 Mughal Emperor referred himself Khalifa age higher rank Mujtahid selecting opinion issuing decrees nass helping stabilize religious situation eliminating Ottoman Khalifa influence ensuring loyalty subjects.

• 5. City Of Victory

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  Akbar followed Salim Chishti holy man living Sikri region near Agra believing area lucky constructing mosque use priest. Celebrated victories over Chittor Ranthambore laying foundations new walled capital west Agra 1569 named Fatehpur Town Victory after conquering Gujarat 1573 subsequently known Fatehpur Sikri distinguishing similarly named towns. City soon abandoned moved capital Lahore 1585 reasons including insufficient poor quality water supply campaigns northwest areas Empire loss interest. 1599 Akbar moved capital back Agra ruling until death. Library established exclusively women at Fatehpur Sikri decreeing schools education Muslims Hindus throughout realm encouraging bookbinding become high art. Sanskrit literature translated participating native festivals. Coins introduced decorative features floral motifs dotted borders quatrefoil issued round square shapes unique mehrab lozenge shaped coin. Portrait type gold Mohur generally attributed son Prince Salim later Emperor Jahangir minted presenting father bearing Akbar's portrait. During latter part reign coins portrayed concept newly promoted religion Ilahi Jalla Jalal-Hu types. Silver Rupee struck Ahmadabad Ilahi type coin having regnal year 47. Ornamental silver Rupee inscriptions Islamic declaration faith reading There is no god except Allah Muhammad messenger Allah.

• 6. Diplomacy And Trade

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  Portuguese established fortresses factories western coast subcontinent controlling navigation sea trade region resented rulers traders including Bahadur Shah Gujarat. Mughal Empire annexed Gujarat acquiring first access sea 1572 local officials informed Portuguese began exert control Indian Ocean. Akbar obtained cartaz permit sailing Persian Gulf region initial meeting during Siege Surat 1572 Portuguese recognizing superior strength Mughal army chose diplomacy instead war. Governor sent ambassador establish friendly relations accepting offer continually asserting authority power Indian Ocean expressing concern requesting permit ships departing Hajj Mecca Medina. September 1579 Jesuits Goa invited visit court letter invitation John Correia-Afonso Letters Mughal Court Bombay 1980 emperor scribes translated New Testament granting freedom preach Gospel entrusted Sultan Murad Mirza Antoni de Montserrat education debating court denigrated Islam Muhammad comments enraged Imams Ulama objecting remarks ordering recorded comments recorded. Rebellion Muslim clerics 1581 led Mullah Muhammad Yazdi Muiz-ul-Mulk chief Qadi Bengal rebels sought overthrow Akbar putting brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim throne successfully defeated becoming cautious inviting guests seeking advice counselors. Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis visited Humayun 1555 Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis visited Empire 1569 ending growing threats Portuguese Empire Indian Ocean campaigns. Six documents addressing Ottoman Sultan Suleiman Magnificent sent 1576 contingent pilgrims Hajj Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi 600,000 rupees 12,000 khalats needy Mecca Medina October 1576 delegation including aunt Gulbadan Begum consort Salima Hajj two ships Ottoman vessel reaching Jeddah port 1577 proceeding Mecca Medina four caravans sent 1577, 1580 gifts authorities Mecca Medina financing pilgrimages poor Muslims funding foundations Qadiriyya Sufi Order dervish lodge Hijaz.