Western Schism

• 1. Avignon Papacy Origins

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  The year 1309 marked the beginning of a seventy-year period when the papal court resided in Avignon, France. Philip IV of France exerted significant pressure on Pope Clement V to move the seat of power from Rome to this French enclave. This relocation was not merely administrative but became deeply entangled with political corruption allegations that would eventually fracture Christendom. The papal curia developed a reputation for extending its patronage powers and increasing revenues at the expense of Western Christendom's trust. Many viewed these actions as evidence of strong French influence over the Church's highest office. Gregory XI, the last pope to reside in Avignon, decided to return to Rome on the 17th of January 1377 following entreaties from relatives and friends. His decision reversed decades of established policy and set the stage for future conflict.

• 2. Dual Election Crisis

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  Gregory XI died in the Vatican palace on the 27th of March 1378, leaving the Church without a clear successor. Roman crowds employed intimidation and violence to ensure the election of a Roman pope rather than allowing cardinals to flee back to Avignon. On the 8th of April 1378, the cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prignano, archbishop of Bari, as Pope Urban VI. Most cardinals quickly regretted their choice and withdrew to Anagni under duress. Thirteen dissident cardinals met at Fondi and elected Count Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII on the 20th of September 1378. They argued that Urban VI's election was invalid because it occurred under fear of rioting Roman mobs. Clement VII fled Naples after his forces lost the battle of Marino and took refuge in Avignon. Charles V of France became his greatest protector while other European monarchs chose sides based on national interests.

• 3. Geopolitical Allegiances

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  European nations aligned themselves with either Rome or Avignon based on political convenience rather than religious doctrine. John I of Portugal signed the Treaty of Windsor in 1386 and firmly supported Urban VI despite English backing for the Portuguese throne. Joanna I of Naples initially sided with Clement VII but faced popular opposition chanting death to the antichrist. The Angevin kings of Hungary, Louis I and Mary, supported Rome unlike their relatives who backed Avignon. Charles III later took the Hungarian throne from Mary and her husband Sigismund, resulting in excommunication by Urban VI. Owain Glyndwr's rebellion in Wales recognized the Avignon antipope Benedict XIII years later. These alliances shifted repeatedly as monarchs pursued territorial ambitions and dynastic security over spiritual unity.

• 4. Council of Pisa Failure

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  The Council of Pisa convened in 1409 under cardinal auspices to resolve the dispute between rival claimants. On the 5th of June 1409, the council declared both Gregory XII and Benedict XIII schismatical, heretical, perjured, and scandalous. Instead of ending the division, they elected Peter Philargi, archbishop of Milan, as Pope Alexander V. He reigned briefly in Pisa from the 26th of June 1409 until his death in 1410. Baldassare Cossa succeeded him as John XXIII, achieving only limited support across Europe. This attempt to depose both existing popes inadvertently created a third line of claimants. The situation became more complex when Benedict XIII refused to negotiate solutions despite agreements made in December 1406. Both groups of cardinals eventually abandoned their preferred leaders after balked negotiations at St. Victor abbey in Marseille.

• 5. Constance Resolution

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  The Council of Constance convened in 1414 to finally resolve the schism once and for all. Pisan pope John XXIII called the council while Roman pope Gregory XII endorsed it, granting greater legitimacy. On the 6th of April 1415, the council issued Haec sancta, declaring that councils hold supreme authority over popes. Jean Gerson advised the council on theological matters regarding ecclesiastical governance. They secured the resignation of Gregory XII and arranged for the detention and removal of John XXIII. Benedict XIII remained defiant and was excommunicated on the 27th of July 1417 after losing all supporters. Pope Martin V was elected later that year, effectively ending the division within the Church. Benedict XIII died on the 23rd of May 1423, though three cardinals elected Gil Sanchez Munoz y Carbon as Clement VIII who resigned in 1429.

• 6. Conciliarist Legacy

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  Jean Gerson and other theologians argued that priests and the church itself were sources of papal power. This new reformist movement held that general councils could correct or depose a pope when necessary. Conciliarism gained significant impetus following the Western Schism crisis. The theory suggested that councils possessed superior capability to resolve ecclesiastical issues compared to individual pontiffs. However, Pope Pius II issued a bull on the 18th of January 1460 forbidding appeals from papal judgments by general councils. Scholars note that the schism eroded the Church's authority and capacity to proclaim its gospel. This dissension ultimately contributed to the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. Modern Catholic recognition now considers only Roman popes legitimate during this period while classifying Avignon and Pisan claimants as antipopes.