Stonewall Jackson
Stonewall Jackson, born Thomas Jonathan Jackson, came close to losing his teaching post at the Virginia Military Institute. In 1856, a group of alumni tried to have him removed. His students had already nicknamed him Tom Fool. They believed he would never be more than a stern colonel, half soldier and half preacher.
Seven years later, he was a Confederate lieutenant general. Military historians now rank him among the most gifted tactical commanders in American history.
How did an orphan from the hills of western Virginia, who started at the bottom of his class at West Point, become that man? Why did a general who told his own officers almost nothing win the deepest trust of Robert E. Lee? And what should a listener make of his conduct in a country divided over slavery? The answers begin at a sickbed in 1826.
On the 6th of March 1826, two-year-old Thomas Jackson sat beside the bed of his six-year-old sister Elizabeth as she died of typhoid fever. His father, the attorney Jonathan Jackson, nursed her through the illness. He died of the same disease on the 26th of March 1827. The next day, Thomas's mother Julia gave birth to a daughter, Laura Ann.
Julia Jackson was twenty-eight, widowed, and deep in debt. She sold the family's belongings, refused charity, and moved into a rented one-room house. For about four years she took in sewing and ran a small private school. Thomas had been born in Clarksburg on the 21st of January 1824, though a marker in Parkersburg claims a cabin there as his birthplace.
In 1830, Julia remarried against her friends' advice. Her new husband, Captain Blake Woodson, did not like his stepchildren. Julia's health failed, and she agreed to let her mother-in-law take Thomas and Laura to Lewis County. Six-year-old Thomas slipped into the woods and stayed hidden until nightfall rather than leave his mother. Julia died in 1836, after giving birth to a half-brother, and was buried in an unmarked grave.
The children went to a half-uncle, Cummins Jackson, who owned a grist mill at Jackson's Mill. Later the two were separated, and Thomas went to live with his Aunt Polly and her husband, Isaac Brake, on a farm near Clarksburg. Brake treated the boy as an outsider and abused him with words for over a year. Thomas ran away. A cousin urged him to go back. He answered, "Maybe I ought to, ma'am, but I am not going to." He walked eighteen miles through mountain wilderness to the mill and stayed there seven years.
At the mill, he tended sheep, drove oxen, and helped bring in wheat and corn. Schooling was scarce, so he taught himself much of what he knew. He struck a bargain with one of his uncle's enslaved workers, who supplied pine knots for light in exchange for reading lessons. Virginia law forbade teaching enslaved people to read or write, but Jackson kept his promise in secret. The young man later escaped to Canada by way of the Underground Railroad. In his last years at the mill, Jackson himself became a schoolteacher.
His family history had a stranger prologue. His great-grandparents John Jackson and Elizabeth Cummins were both convicted of larceny in London. John had stolen £170, and Elizabeth had taken silver, jewelry, and fine lace. Both were sentenced to transportation, and they sailed on the Litchfield, which left London in May 1749 with 150 convicts. They met aboard and married in July 1755. They eventually acquired large tracts of land near present-day Buckhannon. John fought at Kings Mountain on the 7th of October 1780 and finished the Revolutionary War as a captain.
Laura Ann grew up to be Laura Jackson Arnold, close to her brother until the Civil War. She became a fierce Unionist. A Union officer reported her saying she would rather know her brother was dead than see him a leader in the rebel army.
In 1842, Jackson arrived at the United States Military Academy at West Point so poorly schooled that the entrance examinations were a struggle. He began at the bottom of his class. Then he outworked nearly everyone and climbed steadily, graduating 17th out of 59 in the Class of 1846. Daniel Harvey Hill later recalled his classmates' view. "If the course had been one year longer he would have graduated at the head of his class".
Second Lieutenant Jackson joined Company K of the 1st U.S. Artillery Regiment and went to the Mexican-American War. He served at the Siege of Veracruz and at Contreras, Chapultepec, and Mexico City. He earned two brevet promotions and the regular rank of first lieutenant. In Mexico he first met Robert E. Lee.
At Chapultepec on the 13th of September 1847, Jackson refused an order to withdraw that he judged a bad one. He told his superior that pulling back was more dangerous than continuing an artillery duel against heavy odds. He was proved right. Yet he obeyed another order he thought bad. After Mexican authorities missed the hour set for surrender, he fired artillery into a crowd of civilians. His conduct at Chapultepec and in the pursuit that followed brought him a brevet promotion to major.
Peacetime posting sent him to New York and then to Florida, during the Second Interbellum of the Seminole Wars. At Fort Meade, about thirty miles south of Tampa, he served as second-in-command under Major William H. French. The two men filed complaint after complaint against each other. Jackson left in under a year.
In the spring of 1851, he took a newly created post at the Virginia Military Institute. He became Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and Instructor of Artillery. He memorized his lectures and recited them word for word. A student who asked for help received the same explanation again, only slower. The school's founder, John Thomas Lewis Preston, became a close colleague. Preston's wife Margaret was the sister of Jackson's first wife.
That wife was Elinor Junkin, whom Jackson married in 1853. Her father, George Junkin, was president of Washington College, and an addition to his residence housed the couple. Elinor gave birth to a stillborn son on the 22nd of October 1854 and died of a hemorrhage an hour later. After a tour of Europe, Jackson married Mary Anna Morrison in 1857. Their daughter Mary Graham was born on the 30th of April 1858 and lived less than a month.
In December 1859, Jackson commanded two howitzers manned by twenty-one cadets at the hanging of the abolitionist John Brown in Charles Town. That same year he bought the only house he ever owned, a brick town house built in 1801 at 8 East Washington Street in Lexington. He lived there two years before the Confederacy called him away. He never returned.
In 1855, Jackson organized Sunday School classes for Black residents of Lexington at the Presbyterian Church. Most white townspeople barely knew him, but many enslaved and free Black residents did. In encouraging literacy among his students, he broke state law, and that point is undisputed. His wife Mary Anna taught beside him. The pastor, Dr. William Spottswood White, praised Jackson's discipline as systematic, firm, and kind. He wrote, "He was emphatically the black man's friend." The students called him "Marse Major".
Jackson also held people in bondage. In the late 1850s he enslaved six. Harriet, known as Hetty, and her teenage sons Cyrus and George came to him as part of his wife's dowry. A man named Albert worked as a hotel waiter, and Jackson rented him to the institute from 1858 to 1860. Albert likely bought his freedom by 1863. A cook named Amy died in the fall of 1861. Emma, a four-year-old orphan with a learning disability, was taken in from an aged widow.
Mary Anna's account says that Albert and Amy asked to be purchased. Those claims are dubious, since she spent decades after the war distancing her husband from slavery. Jackson and Mary Anna likely sold two enslaved people in 1857 to pay for a larger house.
Jackson left few clues about his private views. He largely accepted slavery as divinely sanctioned, and his conduct was typical for white slaveholders of his era. In her 1895 memoir, Mary Anna said he gave "firm guidance and restraint". She added that he punished first offenses so firmly that they were not repeated.
The war disrupted this household. Most white men in Lexington enlisted, and resistance to enslavement rose across much of the South. Mary Anna found her household hard to control. On Jackson's advice, she sold or hired out everyone except Hetty and moved to Lincoln County, North Carolina. An enslaved man named Jim Lewis stayed with Jackson in the small house where he lay dying.
In the Maryland campaign of 1862, Jackson's command captured over 1200 escaped enslaved people at Harpers Ferry. They were returned to slaveholders or put to work for the Army of Northern Virginia. Southern newspapers described this as a common practice. Harriet, George, Cyrus, and Emma eventually settled nearby in Lincoln County. Harriet, later Harriet Graham Jackson, lived until 1911. George, later George Washington Jackson Sr., died in 1920. Their descendants still live there.
On the 27th of April 1861, Virginia's governor John Letcher ordered Colonel Jackson to take command at Harpers Ferry. There he assembled the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 27th, and 33rd Virginia Infantry regiments, later famous as the Stonewall Brigade. Most came from the Shenandoah Valley. Jackson drilled them relentlessly, convinced that discipline decided battles. He became a brigadier general on the 17th of June 1861. He still wore a blue United States Army jacket, his old VMI major's coat. He did not receive a gray uniform until 1862.
At Henry House Hill, during the First Battle of Bull Run on the 21st of July 1861, the Confederate line was buckling. Jackson's brigade arrived as reinforcements and held through hours of heavy fire. A bullet broke the middle finger of his left hand. General Barnard Bee's South Carolina troops had been overwhelmed. Bee rode up and cried, "They are beating us back!" Jackson replied, "Then we will give them the bayonet!"
Bee then rallied his own men with words that gave Jackson his name: "There is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer. Rally behind the Virginians!" Bee was mortally wounded moments later, and no subordinate left a report, so his meaning is contested. Major Burnett Rhett claimed Bee was angry that Jackson had been slow to relieve him, which would make the remark an insult. Whatever Bee intended, the brigade stopped the Union assault. It suffered more casualties than any other Southern brigade that day.
Jackson also held his left arm up, palm forward, a habit his soldiers read as either eccentricity or prayer. He refused to have the injured finger amputated. He was promoted to major general on the 7th of October 1861 and given the Valley District.
The Valley Campaign of spring 1862 made him famous. Three Union forces threatened Richmond or the Shenandoah Valley, and Jackson was sent to keep them busy. His first battle, at Kernstown on the 23rd of March, was a tactical defeat caused by faulty intelligence. It was also his only defeat in the Valley. His boldness convinced President Abraham Lincoln that Jackson commanded a much larger force. Lincoln kept Nathaniel Banks's troops in the Valley and held Irvin McDowell's 30,000-man corps near Fredericksburg. That removed about 50,000 soldiers from George McClellan's invasion force.
With reinforcements from Richard Ewell and Edward Johnson, Jackson commanded 17,000 men. He struck his divided enemies one at a time. He beat Robert Milroy and Robert Schenck at McDowell, then defeated Banks at Front Royal and Winchester. Lincoln responded by ordering 20,000 men toward Front Royal and John C. Frémont toward Harrisonburg. If they met at Strasburg, Jackson's only escape route would be cut. After a series of maneuvers, Jackson defeated Frémont at Cross Keys and James Shields at Port Republic, on the 8th and the 9th of June.
In 48 days his army marched 646 miles and won five significant victories, with about 17,000 men against a combined 60,000. His rapid marching earned the troops the contradictory nickname "foot cavalry". When the campaign ended in mid-June, Robert E. Lee called him to Richmond.
A railroad tunnel under the Blue Ridge Mountains helped Jackson surprise George McClellan outside Richmond. Using the Virginia Central Railroad, he carried his troops to Hanover County and appeared at Mechanicsville. Reports had last placed him in the Shenandoah Valley. McClellan overestimated the force before him and pulled back to Harrison's Landing on the James River. That retreat ended the Peninsula Campaign and prolonged the war by almost three years.
Yet Jackson's own showing in the Seven Days Battles is generally rated poor. He arrived late at Mechanicsville, ordered his men to camp within earshot of the fighting, and was late again at Savage's Station. At White Oak Swamp he ignored fording places and spent hours trying to rebuild a bridge. That cost him a chance to intervene at nearby Glendale. At Malvern Hill his men joined costly frontal assaults. Exhaustion after the march and rail journey was probably a major factor. His brother-in-law, Daniel Harvey Hill, offered this verdict: "Jackson's genius never shone when he was under the command of another."
In August 1862, Jackson commanded the Left Wing of Lee's army while James Longstreet commanded the Right. Historians often call Jackson the army's hammer and Longstreet its anvil. A journal kept by Hotchkiss suggests that Jackson himself conceived the sweeping march behind John Pope's Army of Virginia. Lee thought it very hazardous. At Manassas Junction, Jackson captured the Union army's main supply depot and destroyed it. Then he took a defensive position and invited Pope to attack. Pope assaulted him on the 28th and the 29th of August. On the 30th, Longstreet struck with over 25,000 men.
Jackson took Harpers Ferry during Lee's invasion of the North, then hurried to join the army at Sharpsburg. His men bore the first attacks at Antietam. A. P. Hill arrived from Harpers Ferry at the last minute and saved the southern end of the line. Lee withdrew across the Potomac. On the 10th of October, Jackson became a lieutenant general commanding the Second Corps.
Before Fredericksburg, Jackson received a letter announcing the birth of his daughter Julia Laura on the 23rd of November. Cavalry commander J. E. B. Stuart gave him a fine new frock coat from a Richmond tailor. Admirers had stripped the buttons from Jackson's old coat. His staff made him wear the new one to dinner. So many soldiers rushed to look that he was embarrassed, and he did not wear it again for months.
At Chancellorsville, Lee divided his army in the face of Joseph Hooker's advance, and Jackson led his whole corps on a flanking march. Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry found the Union right in an open field, guarded by two guns that faced west. Soldiers were eating and playing games. Fitzhugh Lee led Jackson to a hilltop, and later wrote of Jackson's silence: "Oh! 'beware of rashness', General Hooker. Stonewall Jackson is praying in full view and in rear of your right flank!" Jackson's men advanced quietly, then charged with a cry. Many Union soldiers were captured without a shot, and the rest fled.
As Jackson and his staff rode back on the 2nd of May, men of the 18th North Carolina Infantry mistook them for Union cavalry. The sentries fired. Major John D. Barry answered the staff's shouts with, "It's a damned Yankee trick! Fire!" Jackson was struck by three bullets, two in the left arm and one in the right hand. In the darkness, he was dropped from his stretcher. Surgeon Hunter McGuire amputated his left arm. Jackson was taken to the Fairfield plantation at Guinea Station. The owner, Thomas Chandler, offered his home, but Jackson asked for the plantation office building instead.
Jackson held a lifelong belief that one of his arms was longer than the other. He usually held the longer one up to even out his circulation. He was described as a champion sleeper and sometimes dozed off with food in his mouth. He sought relief for his ailments from hydrotherapy at Oswego, New York, in 1850. He tried it again at Round Hill, Massachusetts, in 1860, with little sign of success. Years of artillery service also left him with significant hearing loss in both ears.
A story persists that he gnawed whole lemons to soothe indigestion. General Richard Taylor wrote that nobody could discover where Jackson found his lemons. His biographer James I. Robertson, Jr. found that no contemporary recorded any lemon obsession, including staff, friends, and his wife. Jackson regarded the fruit as a rare treat, best when taken from an enemy camp. He liked peaches most, and he enjoyed all fruit.
His horse was a small chestnut gelding called Little Sorrel, captured from a Connecticut farm. A Georgia soldier, William Andrews, wrote that Jackson "certainly made a poor figure on a horseback", with his stirrups six inches too short. Little Sorrel carried Jackson through the war, including at Chancellorsville, and died at age 36. He is buried near Jackson's statue on the VMI parade grounds. His mounted hide is displayed in the VMI Museum.
Faith shaped everything. Jackson was a deacon in the Presbyterian Church. One of his many nicknames was "Old Blue Lights", a term for a military man with burning evangelical zeal. Biographer Robert Lewis Dabney offered an explanation for his fearlessness. "It was the fear of God which made him so fearless of all else." Jackson himself said, "My religious belief teaches me to feel as safe in battle as in bed."
Stephen W. Sears called his faith fanatical and argued that it warped his judgment of men. It was said that Jackson preferred good Presbyterians to good soldiers. Robertson saw an Old Testament warrior in the mold of David or Joshua. Jackson kept the Sabbath strictly and left no room in his Sunday for labor, newspapers, or secular conversation.
He was just as strict about discipline, and just as secretive about plans. His subordinates often learned his intentions at the last minute and complained of being shut out of decisions. Lee, however, could give him deliberately vague orders, because Jackson grasped goals Lee left unstated.
Few later corps commanders had that gift. At Gettysburg, Lee gave Richard Ewell discretionary orders to take Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill "if practicable". Ewell chose not to attack. Historians consider that decision the battle's greatest missed opportunity.
Robert E. Lee wrote to the wounded Jackson after hearing of his injuries. "Could I have directed events, I would have chosen for the good of the country to be disabled in your stead." Jackson died of complications from pneumonia on the 10th of May 1863, eight days after the shooting.
Dr. McGuire recorded his final moments. Jackson called out orders to A. P. Hill and to a Major Hawks, then broke off mid-sentence. A smile crossed his pale face. He said quietly, "Let us cross over the river, and rest under the shade of the trees."
The fatal bullet was removed and found to be 67 caliber, a type used by Confederate forces. Union troops nearby used 58 caliber balls. This was one of the first cases of identifying a firearm projectile by forensic ballistics.
His body was moved to the Governor's Mansion in Richmond and then buried at Oak Grove Cemetery in Lexington. During the public mourning, 20,000 people visited the body. The coffin had a glass plate so mourners could see his face. Four white horses pulled the hearse, generals served as pallbearers, including James Longstreet, and a crowd two miles long followed.
The amputated arm had been buried separately by chaplain Beverly Tucker Lacy at the Ellwood house, near the field hospital. As Jackson lay dying, Lee sent a message through Lacy. "Give General Jackson my affectionate regards, and say to him: he has lost his left arm but I my right." That night Lee told his cook William, "I have lost my right arm", and, "I'm bleeding at the heart."
In 1921, during a Marine training exercise in Virginia, a local farmer told General Smedley Butler that Jackson's arm lay under a nearby granite marker. Butler answered, "Bosh! I will take a squad of Marines and dig up that spot to prove you wrong!" He found the arm in a box, replaced it with a metal one, and reburied it. His plaque can be seen at the Chancellorsville Battlefield Visitor Center.
Mary Anna Jackson never remarried. She wrote two books about her husband and was known as the "Widow of the Confederacy" until her death in 1915. Their daughter Julia married and had children but died of typhoid fever at 26. Julia's son Thomas Jonathan Jackson Christian, born in 1888, graduated from West Point and became a brigadier general. His son, a colonel commanding the 361st Fighter Group, was killed in August 1944 flying P-51 Mustangs.
Jackson's example passed to later soldiers. As a boy, George Patton prayed beside portraits of Lee and Jackson, assuming they were God and Jesus. Patton once told Dwight Eisenhower, "I will be your Jackson." Douglas MacArthur called Robert Eichelberger his Stonewall Jackson. Chesty Puller carried a biography of Jackson on campaign. Ernest Hemingway took the title of his 1950 novel Across the River and into the Trees from Jackson's last words.
Jackson became central to the ideology of the Lost Cause, commemorated on statues, currency, and postage. A wartime poem became the song "Stonewall Jackson's Way", and the Stonewall Brigade Band still plays. West Virginia named a state park for him. Virginia marked his birthday as a state holiday from 1904 until 2020. A Stonewall Jackson Monument unveiled in Richmond on the 11th of October 1919 was taken down on the 1st of July 2020.
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Common questions
Why was Stonewall Jackson called Stonewall?
Stonewall Jackson earned the name at the First Battle of Bull Run on the 21st of July 1861, when General Barnard Bee shouted that Jackson was standing like a stone wall. Bee was mortally wounded soon after, so the intent of his remark is disputed.
How did Stonewall Jackson die?
Stonewall Jackson died of complications from pneumonia on the 10th of May 1863, eight days after Confederate sentries of the 18th North Carolina Infantry shot him at Chancellorsville. His left arm had been amputated.
What was Stonewall Jackson's Valley Campaign?
The Valley Campaign of spring 1862 was Stonewall Jackson's series of victories in the Shenandoah Valley. His army marched 646 miles in 48 days and won five significant victories with about 17,000 men against a combined 60,000.
Where did Stonewall Jackson go to school and teach?
Stonewall Jackson graduated 17th of 59 from West Point in the Class of 1846. From 1851 he taught at the Virginia Military Institute as Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy and Instructor of Artillery.
Did Stonewall Jackson own slaves?
Stonewall Jackson enslaved six people in the late 1850s, including Harriet, known as Hetty, and her sons Cyrus and George. He also organized Sunday School classes for Black residents of Lexington in 1855, which broke Virginia law on literacy.
What did Robert E. Lee say about Stonewall Jackson's wound?
Robert E. Lee sent a message to the wounded Stonewall Jackson saying that Jackson had lost his left arm but Lee had lost his right. After Jackson died, Lee told his cook, "I have lost my right arm."
All sources
111 references cited across the entry
- 1Eicher, High Commands, p. 316; Robertson, p. 7. The physician, Dr. James McCally, recalls delivering baby Thomas on January 20, 1809, just before midnight, but the family has insisted since then that
- 2James I. Robertson, Stonewall Jackson: The Man, the Soldier, the Legend (1997).
- 4Stonewall Jackson TimelineVirginia Military Institute
- 5Wallace Hettle, Inventing Stonewall Jackson: A Civil War Hero in History and Memory (Louisiana State University Press, 2011)
- 6Farwell, p. xi, states that the overwhelmingly common usage of the middle name Jonathan was never documented and that Jackson did not acknowledge it; he instead used the signature form "T. J. Jackson.
- 7Robertson, pp. 1–2.
- 8Robertson, pp. 2–3.
- 9BookDavid E. Jackson: Field Captain of the Rocky Mountain Fur TradeVivian Linford Talbot — Jackson Hole Historical Society and Museum — 1996
- 11Talbot, op. cit., p. 18
- 13BookRebel yell: the violence, passion, and redemption of Stonewall JacksonS. C. Gwynne — Scribner — 2014
- 15Robertson, p. 7.
- 16Gwynne p. 136
- 17Gwynne p. 137
- 18Robertson, p. 8.
- 19John Frederick Dorman, Adventures of Purse and Person (4th Edition) vol. 3 pp. 833-834
- 20Robertson, p. 10.
- 21Robertson, pp. 9–16. Robertson refers to multiple bachelor uncles in residence at the mill, but does not name them.
- 22Robertson, p. 17.
- 23Laura Jackson Arnold: Sister of General Thomas Jonathan Stonewall JackonNovember 29, 2010
- 25BookStonewall Jackson and the American Civil WarGeorge Francis Robert Henderson — Longmans, Green and Company — 1898
- 26Robertson, p. 69.
- 27NewsBefore He Was 'Stonewall,' Jackson Served in FloridaGeorge T. Eiedson — June 13, 1993
- 28Gwynne, S. C. Rebel Yell: The Violence, Passion, and Redemption of Stonewall Jackson. New York: Scribner, 2014, pp. 110–18.
- 29Robertson, pp. 108–10. He left the Army on March 21, 1851, but stayed on the rolls, officially on furlough, for nine months. His resignation took effect formally on February 2, 1852, and he joined the
- 30BookA Rebel's RecollectionsGeorge Cary Eggleston — Putnam — 1875
- 31BookMighty StonewallFrank E. Vandiver — Texas A&M University Press — 1989
- 33BookIn the Footsteps of Stonewall JacksonClint Johnson — John F. Blair — 2002
- 34BookThe Encyclopaedia Britannica : a dictionary of arts, sciences, literature and general informationHugh Chisholm — Encyclopaedia Britannica — 1910
- 35Myths & Misunderstandings: Stonewall Jackson's Sunday SchoolChris Graham — October 12, 2017
- 36Jackson, Mary Anna, 1895, p. 78
- 37Robertson, p. 169.
- 38New Research Sheds Light On Slaves Owned By Stonewall JacksonJessie Knadler — May 15, 2018
- 39Spurgeon, pp. 4-5
- 40Spurgeon, pp. 5-8
- 41Robertson, pp. 191–92.
- 42The Costs of the ConfederacyPalmer et al. — December 2018
- 43BookInventing Stonewall JacksonWallace Hettle — Louisiana State University Press
- 44Jackson, p. 152
- 45Hettle, p. 85.
- 46Robertson, p. 191.
- 47Stonewall Jackson's SlavesLarry Spurgeon — 2018
- 48Hettle, pp. 83-85.
- 49Hettle, p. 72
- 50Spurgeon, pp. 18-20
- 51BookTheir Maryland: The Army of Northern Virginia From the Potomac Crossing to Sharpsburg in September 1862Alexander Rossino — Savas Beatle — 2021
- 52Archibald Alexander TravelogueSherman Isbell
- 53Robertson, p. 157.
- 54Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, 2011, pg.45
- 55Eicher, High Commands, p. 316.
- 56Freeman, Lee's Lieutenants, vol. 1, p. 82; Robertson, p. 264. McPherson, p. 342, reports the quotation after "stone wall" as being "Rally around the Virginians!"
- 57See, for instance, Goldfield, David, et al., The American Journey: A History of the United States, Prentice Hall, 1999, . There are additional controversies about what Bee said and whether he said any
- 58McPherson, p. 342.
- 59Robertson, pp. 263, 268.
- 60See, for instance, Freeman, R.E. Lee, vol. 2, p. 247.
- 61BookStonewall Jackson and the American Civil WarGeorge Francis Robert Henderson — Longmans, Green — 1903
- 62Wert, p. 206.
- 64Robertson, p. 645.
- 65Robertson, p. 630.
- 66Foote, Shelby, The Civil War: A Narrative, Vol. 2
- 67Apperson, p. 430.
- 68Robertson, p. 739
- 69McGuire, pp. 162–63.
- 70ThesisObjective Analysis of Toolmarks in ForensicsTaylor Nicole Grieve — Iowa State University — 2013
- 72Memoirs of Stonewall Jackson by his widow, Mary Anna Jacksonmary jackson — 1895
- 73Robertson, p. 746.
- 74BookStonewall Jackson and religious faith in military commandKenneth Hall — McFarland — 2005
- 76Stonewall Jackson: Popular QuestionsVirginia Military Institute
- 78Gareth Atkins, review of Evangelicals in the Royal Navy, 1775–1815: Blue Lights and Psalm-Singers by Richard Blake (review no. 799). Retrieved December 24, 2011, at www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/79
- 79BookThe Civil War Book of ListsDonald Cartmell — The Career Press Inc — 2001
- 80Bookin Samaritan Medical Center NewsletterSamaritan Medical Center — September 2008
- 81Taylor, p. 50
- 82Robertson, p. xi.
- 84BookStonewall Jackson As Military CommanderJohn Millin Selby — 2000
- 85NewsOnward, Christian SoldierStephen W. Sears — March 16, 1997
- 86NewsStonewall Jackson biographer says religion drove Civil War generalDavin White — October 15, 2010
- 87BookRevival FireWesley L. Duewel — Zondervan — 2010
- 88JournalThe Great Harvest: Revival in the Confederate Army during the Civil WarMark Summers
- 89Stonewall Jackson: Christian SoldierJames I Robertson — Virginia Center for Civil War Studies
- 90Robertson, p. xiv.
- 91Pfanz, p. 344; Eicher, Longest Night, p. 517; Sears, p. 228; Trudeau, p. 253. Both Sears and Trudeau record "if possible".
- 92Robertson, p. 499.
- 93Robertson, p. 230.
- 94Little Sorrel, Connecticut's Confederate War HorseConnecticutHistory.org
- 96Jackson, Mary Anna, Jackson Memoirs, 1895
- 98See, for instance, Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 233–34. Alternative theories about Gettysburg are prominent ideas in the literature about the Lost Cause.
- 99Robert H. Patton, The Pattons: A Personal History of an American Family (New York: Crown Publishers, 1994), 90.
- 100BookEisenhower Between the Wars: The Making of a General and StatesmanMatthew F. Holland — Greenwood Publishing Group — 2001
- 101BookEichelberger – Intrepidity, Iron Will, And Intellect: General Robert L. Eichelberger And Military GeniusMajor Matthew H. Fath — Verdun Press — 2015
- 102BookThe Chesty Puller Paragon: Leadership Dogma Or Model Doctrine?Major Mickey L. Quintrall USAF — Lucknow Books — 2015
- 104Farwell, 1993, p. 513
- 105Horwitz, 1999, p. 232
- 106NewsVirginia Senate votes to eliminate Lee-Jackson Day, create new Election Day holidayLaura Vozzella — January 21, 2020
- 108General Thomas J. (Stonewall) Jackson Equestrian, (sculpture).Smithsonian Institution
- 109UPDATE: Crews on scene preparing for removal of Jackson statue on Monument AvenueMARK ROBINSON Richmond Times-Dispatch — July 2020
- 110Stonewall Jackson removed from Richmond's Monument AvenueJuly 1, 2020
- 111BookMemoirs of Stonewall JacksonMary Anna Jackson — Louisville, Ky. : Prentice Press, Courier-Journal job Print. Co. — 1895