Smithsonian Institution

• 1. The Gold Sovereigns That Built A Nation

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  On the 10th of August 1846, President James K. Polk signed a piece of legislation that created the Smithsonian Institution as a trust instrumentality of the United States. This act followed eight years of congressional debate over how to interpret the vague mandate left by British scientist James Smithson. The money came from an estate passed to the United States after Henry James Hungerford died childless in 1835. American diplomat Richard Rush traveled to England and returned in August 1838 with 105 sacks containing 104,960 gold sovereigns. These coins were worth approximately $500,000 at the time, which equates to over $220 million when adjusted for GDP in 2007. Congress initially invested these funds in bonds issued by the state of Arkansas, but those bonds soon defaulted. Massachusetts representative John Quincy Adams persuaded Congress to restore the lost funds with interest. He convinced his colleagues to preserve the money specifically for an institution dedicated to science and learning. The first secretary, Joseph Henry, wanted the organization to be a center for scientific research rather than just a museum. The institution operates today without being formally part of any of the three branches of the federal government.

• 2. From Castle To African American History

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  Construction began on the Smithsonian Institution Building known as the Castle in 1849. Architect James Renwick Jr. designed the structure while general contractor Gilbert Cameron completed its interiors. The building opened in 1855 and remains the headquarters of the institution today. The first expansion came with the Arts and Industries Building constructed in 1881. Congress had promised to build this new structure if the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition generated enough income. It did generate sufficient funds, so architects Adolf Cluss and Paul Schulze designed the facility based on plans from Major General Montgomery C. Meigs. The National Zoological Park opened in 1889 to accommodate the Department of Living Animals. Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted designed the park. The National Museum of Natural History opened in June 1911 to house collections previously stored in the Castle and Arts and Industries Building. Detroit philanthropist Charles Lang Freer donated his private collection to the Smithsonian along with funds to build the Freer Gallery which opened in 1923. More than forty years passed before the next museum opened in 1964. This was the Museum of History and Technology later renamed the National Museum of American History. The Anacostia Community Museum created at the initiative of Secretary S. Dillon Ripley opened in 1967. The latest museum to open was the National Museum of African American History and Culture in 2016.

• 3. Stewardship Of Millions Of Artifacts

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  Smithsonian collections include 156 million artworks artifacts and specimens according to current records. The National Museum of Natural History houses 145 million of these items mostly animals preserved in formaldehyde. The Collections Search Center has 9.9 million digital records available online for public access. In February 2020 the institution made 2.8 million digital items available under a Creative Commons Zero Public Domain Dedication. Following international debates about decolonization the Smithsonian adopted an ethical returns policy on the 29th of April 2022. This policy permits deaccession and restitution of items collected under circumstances considered unethical by contemporary standards. A month prior to this adoption the National Museum of African Art announced plans to return most of its 39 Benin Bronzes to Nigeria. On the 11th of October 2022 officials formally returned these bronze works to Nigerian cultural representatives in Washington D.C. The Nigerian Minister of Information Lai Mohammed spoke at the ceremony alongside Prince Aghatise Erediauwa representing the Oba of Benin Kingdom. The museum also displays treasures such as the Star Spangled Banner and the ruby slippers worn by Judy Garland in The Wizard of Oz. First Lady Helen Herron Taft donated her inauguration gown to begin the First Ladies Gown display at the National Museum of American History in 1912.

• 4. Observatories And Tropical Research

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  The Smithsonian maintains eight research centers located across multiple states including Virginia Maryland Florida Massachusetts and Panama. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory opened in Cambridge Massachusetts in 1890 focusing on astrophysics. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute operates out of Panama studying tropical ecology and its interactions with human welfare. Formerly two separate entities the Smithsonian Libraries and Smithsonian Archives merged into a single research center in 2020. The Museum Conservation Institute based in Suitland Maryland handles conservation work for collections since 1965. The Smithsonian Environmental Research Center studies coastal ecosystems from Edgewater Maryland starting in 1965. The Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute focuses on veterinary medicine reproductive physiology and conservation biology from Front Royal Virginia since 1974. The Smithsonian Marine Station at Fort Pierce examines Floridian marine ecosystems and lifeforms. These facilities support scientific inquiry beyond what is visible to the public visiting the museums on the National Mall. The institution also includes three cultural centers among its units: the Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage, the Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Center, and the Smithsonian Latino Center created in 1997.

• 5. Regents Funding And Governance

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  More than two-thirds of the Smithsonian workforce of some 6,300 persons are employees of the federal government. As approved by Congress on the 10th of August 1846 legislation called for creation of a seventeen-member Board of Regents to govern the organization. This board meets at least four times a year and includes ex officio members such as the chief justice of the United States and the vice president. The nominal head of the institution is the chancellor traditionally held by the chief justice. In September 2007 the board created the position of chair currently held by Risa Lavizzo-Mourey. Other members include three representatives appointed by the speaker of the House and three senators appointed by the president pro tempore. Nine citizen members serve nominated by the board and approved by Congress in a joint resolution signed by the president. The secretary serves as the chief executive officer appointed by the Board of Regents but does not vote on that body. The fourteenth and current secretary is Lonnie Bunch who was appointed in 2019 after serving as founding director of the National Museum of African American History and Culture. Almost all visitors pay no charge with the exception of those visiting Cooper Hewitt which charges an admission fee.

• 6. Exhibits Under Political Pressure

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  In 1995 controversy arose over the exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum featuring the Enola Gay aircraft used to drop the first atomic bomb. The American Legion and Air Force Association believed the display emphasized effects on victims without discussing its use within the overall context of the war. The Smithsonian changed the exhibit to show only technical data without discussion of its historic role. In 2003 a National Museum of Natural History exhibit called Seasons of Life and Land faced censorship when officials moved photographs of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to the basement. Acting Secretary Cristián Samper claimed the exhibit contained conclusions beyond what could be proven by contemporary climatology. On the 27th of March 2025 President Donald Trump signed an executive order titled Restoring Truth and Sanity to American History referencing the institution. This order directed Vice President JD Vance to review content for improper or divisive ideology. As of the 12th of August 2025 the White House sent a letter ordering a review of all public-facing content including social media and exhibition text. In July 2025 the American Presidency exhibit removed a temporary label from 2021 regarding impeachments of Donald Trump. A source told The Washington Post that changes came as part of a review implemented in response to pressure from the administration.