Museum
Princess Ennigaldi built a museum in modern Iraq at the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. A clay drum label found there dates to approximately 530 BCE and references the history of items within that collection. This site contained artifacts from earlier Mesopotamian civilizations and stands as one of the oldest known museums. The word museum comes from the Ancient Greek term mouseion, which denoted a place dedicated to the muses. Ptolemy I Soter established the Musaeum in Alexandria around 280 BC for philosophy and research. Ancient Greeks and Romans displayed votive offerings in temples and gardens rather than in buildings we would recognize today. The Roman temple of Peace functioned as a kind of museum outfitted with art from conquered territories. In 1471 Pope Sixtus IV donated bronze sculptures to the people of Rome, marking the start of what became the Capitoline Museums. These institutions officially opened to the public in 1734 under Pope Clement XII. The Louvre in Paris opened its doors in 1793 during the French Revolution, allowing free access to former royal collections. The British Museum began admitting visitors in 1759 after requiring written applications due to fears of damage from large crowds.
The International Council of Museums adopted a new definition of a museum in 2022 describing it as a not-for-profit institution serving society. This definition requires museums to be permanent, open to the public, and inclusive while operating ethically. The Canadian Museums Association defines a museum as an establishment that does not exist primarily for temporary exhibitions but serves the public interest. The United Kingdom's Museums Association states that museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration and learning. American Alliance of Museums accreditation criteria require institutions to have been open to the public for at least two years. Accredited museums must operate at least 1,000 hours per year according to these standards. U.S. legislation authorizing the Institute of Museum and Library Services defines a museum as a nonprofit institution organized on a permanent basis. That law requires professional staff who own or use tangible objects and exhibit them regularly. UNESCO issued a recommendation in 2015 urging combat against illicit trafficking and promotion of sustainable conservation methods. These measures ensure physical integrity of artifacts while adhering to provenance research standards for items acquired during colonial eras.
Board members often serve on boards of directors or boards of trustees depending on whether the institution is a corporation or trust. Executive directors lead organizations by setting goals and managing operations while working with boards to develop policies. Curators oversee collections of art historical objects or scientific specimens and determine authenticity through research. Collections managers maintain accurate records and catalog artifacts to ensure intellectual and physical control of each item. Registrars coordinate logistics including packing shipping insurance and customs arrangements for incoming and outgoing objects. Conservators assess condition of artifacts and implement strategies to slow or prevent further damage. Educators design tours and public programs for children and adults while collaborating with other staff on exhibition development. Exhibit designers create layouts that guide visitor movement and focus attention on specific items. The Brooklyn Museum's Luce Center practices open storage where the public can view items not currently on display. John Cotton Dana detailed founding processes for museums in books published in the early 20th century suggesting community input first.
The American Alliance of Museums quantified annual GDP contribution at $50 billion for U.S. museums. Government support accounted for 24.4% of funding categories in the United States as of 2009. Private charitable giving made up 36.5% of total museum funding during that same period. Earned income represented 27.6% while investment income comprised 11.5%. The Basque regional government spent about $100 million constructing the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao which opened in 2015. That museum attracted over 1.1 million visitors in its opening year with 63% coming from outside Spain. Titanic Belfast cost approximately the same amount and welcomed over 800,000 visitors in its first year. Over ten years Titanic Belfast generated an estimated £430 million in direct spending within Northern Ireland. The Broad in Los Angeles generated $54.5 million in business revenue and supported hundreds of jobs in its first year. Corporate giving to the arts accounts for just 5% of total funding according to recent reports. Average expense per visitor in an art museum was $55 in 2016 compared to average spending of $8 on admissions store and restaurant.
A global movement for decolonization has gained momentum since the late 20th century arguing museums show biased narratives based on ideologies. The 2018 report titled Restitution of African Cultural Heritage by Felwine Sarr and Bénédicte Savoy became a prominent example regarding claims to regain artifacts illegally taken. Several monolithic human figures known as Moai have been removed from Easter Island since 1868 and displayed in major Western museums including the British Museum and Louvre. Rapa Nui residents demand return of these figures which they see as ancestors holding deep cultural value. The Gweagal Shield thought to be taken from Botany Bay in April 1770 remains a significant point of contention. Lord Elgin took Parthenon marble sculptures from Greece in 1805 leading to successive unsuccessful petitions for their return. Montezuma's headdress in the Museum of Ethnology Vienna represents another dispute between Austria and Mexico. Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act enacted in 1990 requires U.S. museums to identify and return human remains to lineal descendants. The Human Tissue Act 2004 allows UK national museums to return human remains under certain conditions.
Over 15,000 museum employees are now represented by unions at more than 50 art museums in the United States. Unionization efforts included institutions such as the Philadelphia Museum Art Whitney Museum and Guggenheim Museum among others. In 2019 workers in multiple museums voted to form unions while over 3,000 cultural workers anonymously shared salaries online through a pay transparency spreadsheet. Administrative staff at New York's Museum of Modern Art formed PASTA organization in 1971 creating the first union of professional employees at a privately financed museum. Security guards went on strike for 11 days in December 2024 at Seattle Art Museum leading to their first contract and wage increases. Unionized staff held a three-week strike in March 2024 at Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art resulting in higher minimum wages and improved overtime pay. Security guards at Natural History Science Museum and Victoria & Albert Museum organized coordinated strikes in December 2024 seeking higher pay and additional annual leave. Brooklyn Museum workers from UAW Local 2110 rallied outside the museum in February 2025 protesting planned termination of 47 employees. Marciano Art Foundation closed indefinitely in November 2019 after workers attempted to unionize releasing a statement that closure was permanent.
Climate control for museum collections contributes significantly to carbon footprint and can account up to 70% of energy consumption in some cases. Museums have responded to ongoing climate crisis by enacting sustainable practices and exhibitions highlighting issues surrounding Anthropocene. The Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles serves as an example where few artifacts exist but strong memorable stories are told through interpretation. National Constitution Center in Philadelphia similarly uses minimal artifacts while delivering powerful information through interactive exhibits. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. uses many artifacts in its memorable exhibitions contrasting with other approaches. Historian Steven Conn suggests fewer objects now exist in all museums as they have been progressively replaced by interactive technology. Dorothy Canfield Fisher observed reduction in objects pushed museums to grow from institutions showcasing many artifacts to thinning out presented items for general view. Science museums like Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago demonstrate high visitorship among school-aged children benefiting more from hands-on interactive technology than reading labels beside artifacts.
Common questions
Who built the first known museum in modern Iraq?
Princess Ennigaldi built a museum in modern Iraq at the end of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. A clay drum label found there dates to approximately 530 BCE and references the history of items within that collection.
When did the Louvre open its doors to the public?
The Louvre in Paris opened its doors in 1793 during the French Revolution, allowing free access to former royal collections. This institution allows visitors to view former royal collections without charge.
What is the official definition of a museum adopted by the International Council of Museums in 2022?
The International Council of Museums adopted a new definition of a museum in 2022 describing it as a not-for-profit institution serving society. This definition requires museums to be permanent, open to the public, and inclusive while operating ethically.
How much money did the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao cost to construct?
The Basque regional government spent about $100 million constructing the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao which opened in 2015. That museum attracted over 1.1 million visitors in its opening year with 63% coming from outside Spain.
Which act enacted in 1990 requires U.S. museums to return human remains to lineal descendants?
Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act enacted in 1990 requires U.S. museums to identify and return human remains to lineal descendants. The Human Tissue Act 2004 allows UK national museums to return human remains under certain conditions.