Salafi movement
The name Salafiyyah emerged as a self-designation in the late 19th century, claiming a return to the traditions of the first three generations of Muslims. These predecessors include the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, followed by the second generation, and finally the third generation known as the Tabi'un. Historians like Louis Massignon traced this movement's intellectual roots to the mid-1800s opposition against European imperialism led by figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh. However, these early reformers did not call themselves Salafis, making their classification an outdated Western label. The term gained traction when Syrian disciples of Tahir al-Jaza'iri opened the famous al-Maktaba al-Salafiyya bookshop in Cairo during 1909. Rashid Rida began cooperating with the library owners in 1912 to publish classical works and pro-Wahhabi pamphlets through their journal al-Majalla al-Salafiyya. Medieval proto-Salafist theologian Taqi al-Din ibn Taymiyya died in 1328 C.E., leaving treatises that formalized the creedal positions later adopted by modern movements. Genealogical dictionaries from the era, such as one by al-Sam'ani who died in 1166, contained brief entries about individuals bearing the surname al-Salafi. These records suggest the name indicated an ascription to pious ancestors rather than a distinct organized sect at that time.
Salafis define their reform project primarily through creedal tenets known as Tawhid, which categorizes the oneness of God into three types: Lordship, Worship, and Names and Attributes. They place great emphasis on practicing actions according to the known sunnah, using three fingers when eating or drinking water in three pauses while holding it with the right hand. The movement champions the rejection of bid'ah, or religious innovation, and opposes blind faith known as taqlid to the four schools of Islamic jurisprudence. Ibn Taymiyya's theological treatises form the core doctrinal texts for Wahhabi, Ahl-i Hadith, and various other Salafi movements. His interpretation of the Shahada serves as the foundation of their faith, emphasizing worship of God alone without partners. Athari theology, upheld by contemporary proponents, believes engagement in speculative theology is absolutely forbidden. A strictly literal reading of the Qur'an has sole authority in matters of belief, law, and creed. Rational disputation is considered forbidden even if one arrives at the truth, as real meanings should be consigned to God alone. This approach rejects metaphorical interpretations called ta'wil and focuses on clear or apparent meanings found in prophetic traditions.
The first phase of the Salafiyya movement emerged amidst reform-minded ulema of the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire during the late 19th century. Damascus played a major role in disseminating these ideas, with scholars like Tahir al-Jazai'ri and 'Abd al-Razzaq al-Bitar leading the charge. By the 1880s, this tradition had become dominant in Syria due to its popularity among reformist ulema. The Damascene Salafiyya consisted of two divergent tendencies: an apolitical Quietist trend and a Salafi-Islamist hybrid. Rashid Rida's religious approach was rooted in reviving Ibn Taymiyya's theology to rectify the decline of the Islamic World. His disciples included Muhammad Bahjat al-Bitar who published treatises like Al-Kawthari wa-Ta'liqatuhu in 1938. Contemporary Salafism emerged from the 1960s as an intellectual hybrid of three distinct religious reform traditions. The person most responsible for this transformation was the Albanian scholar Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani, considered the spiritual father of the current movement. He is respected by all contemporary Salafis as the greatest hadith scholar of his generation. As of 2017, journalist Graeme Wood estimated that Salafis make up fewer than 10% of Muslims globally. Despite their minority status, Salafi teachings have become mainstreamized within modern Muslim communities.
Western analysts classify Salafis into three groups based on their approach to politics: purists, activists, and jihadists. Purists focus on non-violent da'wah, education, and purification of religious beliefs while dismissing politics as a diversion. Madkhalism represents a strain of Salafists viewed as supportive of authoritarian regimes in the Middle East. Activists advocate transforming societies through political action without violence, including organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood and Egyptian Hizb al-Nour. They work within established orders to replace them with an Islamic state. Salafi jihadism describes self-claiming groups developing interest in armed struggle during the mid-1990s. Journalist Bruce Livesey estimates these jihadists constitute less than 1.0 percent of the world's 1.2 billion Muslims. Major jihadi groups include the Islamic State organization, Boko Haram, and Al-Shabaab. All agree on overthrowing existing ruling orders through armed Jihad to establish a Global Caliphate. Palestinian scholar 'Abdallah 'Azzam asserted that Jihad is the most excellent form of worship. These views are not representative of the broader Islamic tradition and have been strongly condemned by scholars across the spectrum.
In Saudi Arabia, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab started a reform movement in the remote region of Najd during the 18th century. He invited people to Tawhid and advocated purging animist rituals associated with shrine veneration. His disciples secured a religio-political pact with Muhammad ibn Saud to establish an Islamic state. The movement demolished numerous shrines and tombs of saints while engaging in military expansionism. In the Indian subcontinent, the Ahl-i Hadith movement emerged in Northern India in the mid-nineteenth century. Shah Waliullah Dehlawi served as its intellectual forefather, with followers regarding him as Shaykh al-Islam. The movement expanded into Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan after the death of Sayyid Ahmad Barelvi in 1831. By 1883, the British fully crushed the Mujahidin movement following the Rebellion of 1857. Kerala Nadvathul Mujahideen was founded in 1950 in Kerala as a popular reform movement. It traces its roots to the Kerala Aikya Sangam established in 1922. This movement maintains good connections with Arab Salafi groups especially in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.
During the Cold War following World War II, the United States and the United Kingdom launched covert campaigns to strengthen fundamentalist groups in the Middle East. These groups were seen as a hedge against potential expansion by the Soviet Union. An internal U.S. State Department memo from 1957 reported President Eisenhower discussing holy war aspects with Secretary of State John F. Dulles. Since the 1960s, Saudis have funneled over USD 100 billion into funding schools and mosques worldwide. Political scientist Alex Alexiev described this as the largest worldwide propaganda campaign ever mounted. David A. Kaplan noted it dwarfed the Soviets' propaganda efforts at the height of the Cold War. Mohammed bin Salman stated that international propagation of the movement was rooted in preventing Soviet inroads during the Cold War. In 2013, the European Parliament identified Wahhabism as the main source of global terrorism. Leaked U.S. diplomatic cables indicated donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding for Sunni terrorist groups worldwide. Estimates suggest spending on 1,500 mosques, 210 Islamic centers, and dozens of academies costs around $2, 3bn annually since 1975.
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Common questions
When did the Salafi movement emerge as a self-designation?
The name Salafiyyah emerged as a self-designation in the late 19th century. Historians trace this movement's intellectual roots to the mid-1800s opposition against European imperialism led by figures such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad Abduh.
Who is considered the spiritual father of contemporary Salafism?
Contemporary Salafism emerged from the 1960s as an intellectual hybrid where Albanian scholar Muhammad Nasir al-Din al-Albani was most responsible for this transformation. He is respected by all contemporary Salafis as the greatest hadith scholar of his generation.
What are the three types of Tawhid emphasized by Salafis?
Salafis define their reform project primarily through creedal tenets known as Tawhid which categorizes the oneness of God into three types: Lordship, Worship, and Names and Attributes. They place great emphasis on practicing actions according to the known sunnah while rejecting religious innovation known as bid'ah.
How many Muslims globally identify as Salafis as of 2017?
As of 2017 journalist Graeme Wood estimated that Salafis make up fewer than 10% of Muslims globally. Despite their minority status Salafi teachings have become mainstreamized within modern Muslim communities.
When did Saudi Arabia begin funding mosques and schools worldwide?
Since the 1960s Saudis have funneled over USD 100 billion into funding schools and mosques worldwide. Estimates suggest spending on 1,500 mosques 210 Islamic centers and dozens of academies costs around $2.3bn annually since 1975.