Russo-Persian Wars
In 1521, Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty sent a diplomatic envoy to Tsar Vasili III of Muscovy. This marked the earliest official contact between the two powers. Commercial relations remained infrequent during these early years. Tatars often acted as merchant intermediaries for both sides. The Ottoman Empire imposed a commercial blockade against Persia in 1514. Shah Abbas I sought alternate overland trade routes through Russia to reduce pressure from the Ottomans. An Ottoman attempt to capture Shirvan caused Shah Tahmasp I to send a diplomatic envoy to Moscow in 1552. In 1580, the Ottomans occupied Shirvan and parts of Khartli-Kakheti, including Tiflis. Ottoman forces also threatened Astrakhan, which was key to an important trade route and a Russian commercial centre. Shah Mohammed Khodabanda promised to cede Derbent and Baku to Russia following the liberation of these cities from the Ottoman Empire. Russia annexed the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates in 1552 and 1556 respectively. Significant points along this trade route were Gilan and Derbent. These locations served as origins for maritime and overland trade routes between Russia and Persia. The commercial centres of Astrakhan and Shamakhi became vital hubs. Shamakhi in particular hosted much merchant trade from Russia. Goods included silks, leather, metal wares, furs, wax and tallow. Persian merchants traded in Russia, reaching as far as Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. In 1555, the Muscovy, or Russia Company was created for the sole purpose of overland trade with Persia. In 1604, Shah Abbas I resettled a significant population of Armenians from Julfa to his newly established capital, Isfahan. He gave them commercial rights and lowered taxes. Throughout the sixteenth century, Persian diplomatic relations often accompanied commercial envoys. They sent silk and metal wares to Russia. In return, Russia sent furs, falcons and wild animals. Velvet, taffeta and silk from Kashan, Isfahan and Yazd made up over seventy percent of goods transported to Russia in the sixteenth century.
In 1645, there was unrest between the Russian Cossacks and the Lezgins, who were considered Persian subjects. These tensions centred primarily along the Georgian-Dagestani border. A Russian-supported candidate gained leadership of Dagestan over a Persian candidate. In 1647, Khosrow Khan, the governor of the Shirvan province, complained to the governor of Astrakhan that Cossacks had committed robberies. He threatened to confiscate the goods of Russian merchants in Shamakhi. The shah took no action when Russian authorities protested this move. Tension escalated when, in 1650, Cossacks robbed a caravan carrying wares from Shirvan and Dagestan. Several people were killed during this incident. The Russians expanded a garrison on the Sulak River. They constructed several more on the Terek River, including one garrison supporting Teimuraz. This expansion into Persian territory angered Shah Abbas II. Teimuraz had been deposed by the shah. In 1653, the shah ordered governors of Ardabil, Erivan, Karabakh, Astarabad and parts of Azerbaijan to send troops. Further troops came from Derbent, the Shamkhalate of Tarki and the ruler of the Kara Qaytaq. These forces drove the Russians from the fortress and set fire to it. That same year, an envoy led by Prince Ivan Lobanov-Rostovsky travelled to Persia. He requested compensation for losses suffered and release of all Russian merchants. This conflict over Georgia and Dagestan affected trade relations between the countries. In 1651, 138 bales of Persian silk sat in storage in Astrakhan due to lack of demand.
In January 1721, Pashtun Afghans led by Mirwais Hotak began a campaign against the Persians over ruling of Qandahar. Their army numbered 25,000 men. They invaded Persia and attempted to seize Kerman but failed to hold the city. Mahmud subsequently moved to camp outside Gulnabad, ten miles from Isfahan. Daud Khan, chieftain of the Lezgin tribe, was released in August 1721 following initial attacks by Afghans. He hoped to raise an army to support the shah. Daud Khan and his followers sacked Shamakhi in August 1721. Thousands of Shia Muslims were killed along with several wealthy Russian merchants. Artemy Volynsky, now governor of Astrakhan, urged Tsar Peter I to send troops. Vakhtang VI, ruler of Khartli-Kakheti, contacted Peter for support. Following the Afghan victory at Battle of Gulnabad on the 8th of March 1722, Mahmud Hotak besieged Isfahan. Mirza Tahmasp escaped Isfahan with 600 men and fled to Qazvin. From there he fled to Resht as Afghan forces pursued him. The governor of Resht contacted Tsar Peter requesting aid. Tsar Peter arrived in Astrakhan on the 29th of June 1722. An envoy informed Shah Husayn that Russian forces aimed to subdue rebels rather than declare war. Peter proposed rendering aid provided Persia ceded certain provinces. Vakhtang VI supplied 30,000 men while Armenians sent 10,000 more. From Astrakhan, troops attacked Persian fortresses on western coast of Caspian Sea. They occupied Derbent fortress then seized Baku and Salyan in Shirvan province. Lankaran in Talesh province and Anzali in Gilan province were also taken. These areas formed significant silk production industry zones. In September 1722, many Russian ships were lost in a storm. An epidemic killed significant portion of horses in cavalry. Russian troops withdrew to Astrakhan leaving few garrisons behind.
The Treaty of St Petersburg was signed between Russian Empire and Persian Empire on the 23rd of September 1723. Under terms, tsar accorded shah friendship and aid against rebels. In return, Persia ceded Derbent, Baku, Mazandaran, Gilan, Shirvan and Astarabad. Ismail Beg signed treaty but shah refused ratification when text arrived April 1724. The Treaty of Constantinople followed on the 24th of June 1724 between Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire. It mitigated political crisis caused by previous agreement. Ottoman Empire received Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia under its terms. Russia retained Mazandaran, Gilan and Astarabad. Should Persia refuse acknowledgment, both powers would install puppet ruler on Persian throne. The Treaty of Hamedan appeared October 1727 between Ottoman Empire and Afghan Hotaki dynasty. Hotaks agreed to cede Zanjan, Sultaniyah, Abher, Teheran to Ottomans. Ashraf Hotak declared Shah of Persia in exchange. The Treaty of Resht came next, signed the 21st of January 1732 between Russian Empire and Safavid Persia. It gave Persia portion of territories ceded earlier. Russia returned Astarabad, Gilan and Mazandaran provinces to Persia. Terms specified that if Ottomans relinquished Caucasian territories back to Russia, then Russia would also cede Derbent and Baku. Free trade for Russian merchants ensured under this agreement. The Treaty of Ganja concluded series in March 1735. It gave Persia remainder of territories ceded in 1723 including Derbent, Baku surrounding Shirvan province and Tarki. Furthermore it marked Terek River as boundary between nations.
In 1781, Russian commander Count Voinovich led flotilla intended to wrest islands and port city of Astarabad from Agha Mohammed Khan. However, Agha Mohammed Khan arrested and deported all parties involved. In 1783, Erekle II of Khartli-Kakheti agreed become vassal state of Russian Empire. This formalized in Treaty of Georgievsk on the 24th of July 1783. Persia still considered Khartli-Kakheti its vassal state. Following signature Vladikavkaz fortress built on Terek River. Governor of Gilan province Hedayatollah sought Russian support against Agha Mohammed Khan. Russia stipulated vassalage of Anzali in return. They supported Morteza Qoli Khan brother rival of Agha Mohammed Khan. Proviso stated he would cede Anzali, Gilan Mazandaran Astarabad after ascension. Agha Mohammed Khan viewed Treaty of Georgievsk defiance by Erekle II. He moved toward Tiflis in 1795 attempting restore Persian dominion. Army numbered 60,000 men intending retake Karabakh Ganja Shirvan Khartli-Kakheti. Forces divided attacking Shirvan Erivan Shusha simultaneously. Siege lasted the 8th of July to the 9th of August 1795 at Shusha. Governor surrendered but denied army entry road to Tiflis through Shusha. Negotiation gained access then force marched from Shusha occupy Ganja. Forty thousand men marched from Ganja to Tiflis on the 10th of September 1795 taking city. By end 1795 Agha Mohammed captured Tiflis dominating northern Persia. Thousands Georgians massacred during invasion. Fifteen thousand citizens taken into captivity sent as slaves to Persia. Tsarina Catherine II began campaign 1796 overthrow Agha Mohammed Khan favoring Morteza Qoli Khan. Russian forces consisting 20,000 men marched Kizlyar April 1796 seizing Derbent the 10th of May 1796. Occupied Talesh Salyan Derbent Baku Shamakhi Ganja by June 1796. Following death Catherine II recalled all troops Caucasus under Tsar Paul I.
On the 18th of January 1801 agreed Khartli-Kakheti become protectorate Russia. On the 12th of September 1801 Tsar Alexander formally announced decision annex Khartli-Kakheti after Persia attempted reassert suzerainty. In 1804 following civil unrest Fath Ali Shah minted new silver gold coins Erivan Ganja Nukha showing proof suzerainty provinces. From 1802 to 1804 Russian forces captured subdued Georgian kingdom Imereti Ottoman vassal state plus Mingrelia Guria surrounding khanates. Ganja occupied sacked killing 3,000 citizens. Persia considered surrounding khanates its vassal states taking Russian progression justification declaration war. On the 23rd of May 1804 Fath Ali Shah demanded withdrawal Russian troops from Persian territory Caucasus request refused precipitating declaration war. Russian troops marched Erivan province besieging capital Erivan the 1st of July siege failed running provisions out subsequently suffered defeats Leninakan Erivan retreating regroup. In 1805 khanates Shaki Shirvan Karabakh formally recognized Russian authority. Russian forces attacked Baku Resht Quba Talesh. In 1806 defeated Persian attack Karabakh capturing Derbent Baku. Following losses Persian troops defeated many significant locations ensuing years. Karakapet captured 1806 then Karababa 1808 occupying Ganja 1809 Akhalkalaki 1810. In 1810 Persians allied Ottomans attacked Tiflis Nakhichevan failing capture city retreat hindered Russian occupation Megri Aras River. On the 12th of August 1812 twenty thousand Persian men captured fortress Lankaran Talesh province proceeding Aras River attacking Russian troops October. Russians defeated Persians October 1812 Aslanduz Ardabil province destroying artillery forcing retreat Tauris. Later defeated also Lankaran the 13th of January 1813. Treaty Gulistan signed the 24th of October 1813 concluding Fourth Russo-Persian War. Persia ceded all territories north Aras River including Dagestan Mingrelia Abkhazia Derbent Baku Shaki Quba Talesh Shirvan Karabakh Ganja. Treaty permitted Russia exclusive military rights Caspian Sea trade rights within Persia.
Death Tsar Alexander 1825 led false belief Persia civil war broken out Caucasus kingdoms tribes rebelled. May 1826 Russia occupied Mirak Erivan province Persia action stood opposition Treaty Gulistan. July 1826 Abbas Mirza ordered attack Russian territories Caucasus besieging Shusha Ganja renamed Elisavetpol by Russia proceeding toward Tiflis. Second force attacked Gyumri. Persia invaded Karabakh Talesh provinces ceded Russia Treaty Gulistan. Citizens surrendered cities Lankaran Quba Baku Persia. Russian attack subsequently defeated Persians Shamkhor River Ganja September 1826 retreating Tauris. October 1826 Russian forces besieged Erivan successively seized Nakhichevan Abbasabad Meren Urmiya Ardabil 1827. Russians defeated Persians 1827 capturing Erivan Tauris forcing sue peace. Treaty Turkmenchay signed the 21st of February 1828 between Russian Empire and Persia. Under treaty Persia ceded Erivan Talesh Nakhichevan khanates. Aras River established new border countries. Persia required pay twenty million rubles silver indemnification. Treaty continued allow Russia exclusive right naval presence Caspian Sea exempting Russian subjects Persian jurisdiction.
Following signature Treaty Turkmenchay Persia experienced considerable instability. Alexander Sergeyevich Griboedov Russian envoy murdered Tehran 1829. In 1830 Fath Ali Shah sent diplomatic mission Russia apologise formally. Unrest Yazd Kerman 1831 several chieftains rebelled Quchan Turbat-i Haidari 1832. Following death Fath Ali Shah 1834 increased concerns possibility civil war. Rival claimants throne stirred further discontent early reign Mohammed Shah. Isfahan experienced serious unrest 1839 1840 high-ranking officials questioned inhibited central government authority. Over course nineteenth century Qajar Persia largely fell sphere influence Russia jostling control Iran Afghanistan Britain Great Game. Romanovs shifted policy informal support weakened Qajar dynasty continuing pressure advances largely nomadic Turkestan crucial frontier territory Qajars. Russian domination Persia continued nearly century. Persian monarchy became symbolic concept Russian diplomats powerbrokers Iran monarchy dependent Russian British loans funds. Russian Empire backed Persian sieges Herat 1837, 1838 1856 part Great Game. For Persia expansion Afghanistan attempt compensate lost territories Caucasus. Russia concerned silk production Caucasus merchants Elisavetpol formerly Ganja expressed interest assuming control Caucasian silk industry. Authorities attempted reallocate lands Azerbaijani nobles among Russian landlords action proved unsuccessful. T.B. Armstrong traveller region noted new Russian domination Caucasus resented Zanjan parts Azerbaijan. By 1860 fifty thousand Persians settled Caucasian region. Trade continued between Russia Persia consisting sugar petroleum exported Persia cotton rice wool dried fruit exported Russia. In 1897 exports into Russia totalled 18,649,669 rubles imports into Persia 16,036,032 rubles. Establishment Cossack Brigade Russian officers 1879 gave Russian Empire influence modernization Qajar army. Influence especially pronounced because Persian monarchy legitimacy predicated image military prowess. By 1890s Russian tutors doctors officers prominent Shah court influencing policy personally. 1907 Russian Empire alongside British Empire partitioned Iran spheres influence Anglo-Russian Convention. Russian forces entered Persia during Russian involvement Persian Constitutional Revolution.
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Common questions
When did the Russo-Persian Wars begin and end?
The Russo-Persian Wars began in 1651 and ended in 1828. This series of conflicts spanned over a century involving multiple treaties and battles between the Russian Empire and Persian Empire.
What territories did Persia cede to Russia after the Treaty of Turkmenchay signed on the 21st of February 1828?
Persia ceded the Erivan, Talesh, and Nakhichevan khanates to Russia under the Treaty of Turkmenchay signed on the 21st of February 1828. The Aras River was established as the new border between the countries following this agreement.
Which treaty marked the boundary between Russia and Persia along the Terek River in March 1735?
The Treaty of Ganja concluded the series of wars in March 1735 and marked the Terek River as the boundary between nations. It also gave Persia the remainder of territories ceded in 1723 including Derbent, Baku surrounding Shirvan province and Tarki.
How many men were in the army that Agha Mohammed Khan moved toward Tiflis in 1795?
Agha Mohammed Khan moved an army numbering 60,000 men toward Tiflis in 1795 attempting to restore Persian dominion. This force divided attacking Shirvan Erivan Shusha simultaneously before capturing Tiflis by the end of 1795.
What commercial goods did Persian merchants trade with Russia during the sixteenth century?
Persian merchants traded silk taffeta and velvet from Kashan Isfahan and Yazd which made up over seventy percent of goods transported to Russia in the sixteenth century. Other goods included silks leather metal wares furs wax and tallow exchanged for Russian furs falcons and wild animals.