Roman historiography
During the Second Punic War with Carthage, Rome's earliest known annalists Quintus Fabius Pictor and Lucius Cincius Alimentus recorded history in Greek. They relied on Greek historians such as Timaeus to shape their narratives. Roman histories were not written in Classical Latin until the 2nd century BCE with the Origines by Cato the Elder. Contemporary Greek historians like Polybius wrote about the rise of Rome during its conquest of Greece. This period marked the ascension of Rome as the primary power of the Mediterranean in the 2nd century BCE. Moving away from the annalist tradition, Roman historians of the 1st century BCE began writing works in a much fuller narrative form. These early efforts formed the basis of the Roman historiographic models utilized by later Imperial authors of the Principate era. Before this conflict, there was no formal historiography in Rome. The clash of civilizations proved a potent stimulus for historical recording. Both Fabius Pictor and Cincius Alimentus may be considered the founders of Roman historiography. Their works have survived only in fragments today. One motive for choosing Greek language was a desire to win support among Greeks who included pro-Carthaginian authors. Greek was seen as sufficiently developed for serious topics like history. Rome took her past seriously enough to insist that its history was told with suitable literary art. For these early successors, writing in Greek fitted Roman history into mainstream Hellenistic literature. This approach promoted presenting Rome to a cultured Greek audience as it advanced eastwards. Latin prose remained at a less developed stage compared to Greek at that time.
The annalistic tradition wrote histories year-by-year from the beginning, usually starting from the founding of the city. Gnaeus Gellius wrote his history from Aeneas until 146 BC around 140 BC. Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi wrote to demonstrate reasons for decline of Roman society around 133 BC. His history chronicled Rome from foundation until 154 BC which he regarded as lowest point of Roman society. Cicero described Piso's work as annals very jejunely written. Publius Mucius Scaevola wrote a history from foundation of city in 80 books around 133 BC. Sempronius Asellio wrote a history from Punic Wars until c. 100 BC as patriotic encouragement. Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius wrote mainly about warfare taking patriotic line that all Roman wars are just. The monographic tradition emerged as more similar to present-day history books on single topics. They did not tell history from beginning and were not necessarily annalistic. An important subcategory was biography. Gaius Gracchus wrote biography of brother Tiberius Gracchus. Gaius Fannius also wrote biography of Tiberius Gracchus but showed him negative light. Lucius Coelius Antipater wrote monograph on Second Punic War notable for improved style and fact-checking efforts. Sallust wrote two monographs Bellum Catilinae about Catilinarian conspiracy from 66 to 63 BC and Bellum Jugurthinum about war with Jugurtha from 111 to 105 BC. John Burrow called Sallust master of economical lucid dramatic narrative with acid if exaggerated comment. Monographs could be written about single event technique rhetoric or any number other subjects. Pliny the Elder once published monograph on throwing-spear use by cavalry. Monographs among most common historical works found in Roman writings.
Often especially during political unrest historians rewrote history to suit particular views of age. Starting with Gracchi brothers this became evident in 70s BC with conflict between populists led by Marius and senatorials led by Sulla. Several authors wrote histories each taking side. Gaius Licinius Macer was anti-Sullan and wrote his history based on Gnaeus Gellius in 16 books from founding until 3rd century BC. Valerius Antias who was pro-Sulla wrote history in 75 books from founding until 91 BC. Both were used subsequently by Livy to create more evenly balanced account. This habit using past to justify positions present reinforced by greater preponderance public men writing Roman history. Sullan annalists politicized their past as partisans of Sullan faction carrying on Marius and Sulla conflict through histories. They often rewrote events to fit own agenda. Some Sullan annalists may have been sources for Livy. Valerius Antias fl. 80-60 BC was Sullan annalist but not viewed credible historian. He seemed trying counter Marian historian C. Licinius Macer whose veracity also questionable. Antias' history written seventy-six books melodramatic often filled exaggerations lies. Livy wrote Valerius guilty gross exaggerations numbers all kinds. In his history anyone named Cornelius considered hero anyone named Claudius enemy. Opposition populares never went consistent name instead called boni optime or optimates implying good guys. Ancient Roman historians did not write sake writing effort convince audiences. Propaganda ever present function Roman historiography. Ancient Roman historians traditionally had personal political baggage not disinterested observers. Their accounts written specific moral political agendas.
Julius Caesar born the 12th of July 100 BC into patrician family. As young man given priesthood Flamen Dialis by father-in-law Cornelius Cinna. When position taken away by Sulla Caesar spent decade Asia earning great reputation military. Upon return Rome elected tribunus militium and given priesthood pontifex. During positions Caesar befriended Pompey Crassus two men later form First Triumvirate. Recognition for Caesar's political military oratory skills grew easily elected praetor consul. After consulship gained control provinces Illyricum Cisalpine Transalpine Gaul. In 58 BC trouble arose Gallic provinces sparking one most important wars Caesar career. De Bello Gallico Caesar account Gallic Wars. As Wars raging Caesar came great deal criticisms Rome. De Bello Gallico response criticisms way Caesar justify these wars. His argument Gallic Wars both just pious him army attacked Gaul self-defense. Helvetians forming massive migration straight through provinces. When group neighboring allies came Caesar himself asking help against invading Helvetians that all justification Caesar needed gather army. By creating account portrays himself superb military hero Caesar able clear doubts Rome about abilities leader. Although Caesar used account own gain not say De Bello Gallico at all unreliable. Victories Caesar written did occur fact. Smaller details however may altered word choice makes reader more sympathetic Caesar cause. De Bello Gallico excellent example ways retellings actual events spun person advantage. For reason De Bello Gallico often looked commentary rather piece actual historiography. His companion piece Commentarii de Bello Civili faced difficult challenge presenting author actions positive light. By framing soldiers uniformly heroic himself acting defence official status Roman liberty too Caesar again makes good case for himself.
Titus Livius commonly known Livy Roman historian best known work Ab Urbe Condita history Rome from founding city. He born Patavium modern day Padua 59 BC died there 17 AD. His contemporary Pollio disparaged him patavinitas referring local coarse words use. Little known life but based epitaph found Padua had wife two sons. We also know on good terms Augustus encouraged Claudius write history. Ab Urbe Condita covered Roman history from founding commonly accepted 753 BC to 9 BC. Consisted 142 books though only books 1, 10 and 21, 45 survive whole summaries other books few fragments exist. Books referred decades because Livy organized material groups ten books. Decades further split pentads. Books 1, 5 cover founding 390 BC. Books 6, 10 cover 390, 293 BC. Though we do not have books 11, 20 evidence suggests books 11, 15 discussed Pyrrhus books 16, 20 dealt First Punic War. Books 21, 30 cover Second Punic War. 21, 25 deal Hannibal. 26, 30 deal Scipio Africanus. Wars Philip V Greece discussed books 31, 35. Wars Antiochus III east books 36, 40. Third Macedonian War dealt books 40, 45. Books 45, 121 missing. Books 121, 142 deal events 42 through 9 BC. Purpose writing Ab Urbe Condita twofold first memorialize history second challenge generation rise same level. Preoccupied morality using history moral essay connects nation success high level morality conversely nation failure moral decline. Livy believed there had been moral decline Rome lacked confidence Augustus could reverse it. Though shared Augustus ideals not spokesman regime. Believed Augustus necessary short term measure. According Quintillian Livy wrote lactea ubertas milky richness. Used language embellish material including poetical archaic words. Included many anachronisms tribunes having power they did not until much later. Also used rhetorical elaborations attributing speeches characters whose speeches possibly known. Though not thought first-rate research historian overly dependent sources work so extensive other histories abandoned Livy. Unfortunate these other histories abandoned especially since much Livy work now gone leaving holes knowledge Roman history.
Tacitus born c. 56 AD most likely Cisalpine Narbonese Gaul. Upon arriving Rome happened by 75 quickly began lay tracks political career. By 88 made praetor under Domitian member quindecimviri sacris faciundis. From 89 to 93 Tacitus away Rome newly married wife daughter general Agricola. 97 saw Tacitus named consul suffectus under Nerva. Likely held proconsulship Asia death datable c. 118. There much scholarly debate concerning order publication Tacitus works traditional dates given here. 98 Agricola De vita Iulii Agricolae laudation author father-in-law aforementioned general Cn. Iulius Agricola. More biography however garnered from Agricola Tacitus includes sharp words poignant phrases aimed emperor Domitian. 98 Germania De origine et situ Germanorum belongs literary genre describing country peoples customs race Cooley 2007. c. 101/102 Dialogus Dialogus de oratoribus commentary state oratory Tacitus sees it. c. 109 Histories work spanned end reign Nero death Domitian Unfortunately only extant books 1, 4 quarter book 5. Unknown Annales Ab excessu divi Augusti Tacitus largest final work Some scholars also regard most impressive work. Date publication whether completed all unknown. Annales covered reigns Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Like Histories parts Annales lost most book 5 books 7, 10 part 11 everything middle 16. Tacitus familiar invective present this work. Tacitus style very much like Sallust Short sharp phrases cut right point makes no bones conveying point. Claim writes history sine ira studio without anger partiality Annales I.1 not exactly true. Many passages ooze hatred emperors Despite seemingly obvious partisan style writing much what said go under radar which Tacitus wanted things be. Skill orator praised good friend Pliny no doubt contributes supreme mastery Latin language. Not mince words waste time history Rome ab urbe condita. Rather gives brief synopsis key points before begins lengthier summary reign Augustus. From there launches scathing account history Livy would have left off. Edward Gibbon considered Tacitus very model philosophic historian.
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus Suetonius famous biographies Julio-Claudian Flavian emperors notable historical figures. Born around 69 equestrian family Living times Emperor Trajan connection Pliny Younger able begin rise rank imperial administration. c. 102 appointed military tribune position Britain did actually accept. Though staff Pliny command Bithynia. Late period Trajan rule Hadrian held various positions discharged. Close proximity government access imperial archives seen historical biographies. Suetonius wrote large number biographies important literary figures past De Viris Illustribus. Included collection notable poets grammarians orators historians philosophers Collection like other works not organized chronologically. All survived present day number references sources attribute fragments collection. Most famous work though De Vita Caesarum collection twelve biographies tells lives Julio-Claudian Flavian Emperors spanning Julius Caesar Domitian. Other introductory genealogy short summary subject youth death biographies follow chronological pattern. Rather chronicling events happened time Suetonius presents them thematically. Style allowed compare achievements downfalls each emperor using examples imperial responsibilities building projects public entertainment. However makes dating aspects each emperor life events early Roman Empire difficult. Completely removes ability extrapolate causal sequence works. Suetonius purpose not historical recount events rather evaluation emperors themselves. Suetonius style simple often quotes directly sources used artistic organization language seems exist subtler skills detected some. Addresses points directly without flowery misleading language quotes sources often. Often criticized interested interesting stories emperors actual occurrences reigns. Style writes primarily stems overarching purpose catalogue lives subjects. Not writing annalistic history even trying create narrative. Goal evaluation emperors portraying events actions person office. Focuses fulfillment duties criticizing those did live expectations praising bad emperors times fulfilled duties. Variety other lost incomplete works Suetonius many describe areas culture society Roman Year names seas. What know about only through references outside works themselves.
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Common questions
Who founded Roman historiography during the Second Punic War?
Quintus Fabius Pictor and Lucius Cincius Alimentus are considered the founders of Roman historiography. They recorded history in Greek during the Second Punic War with Carthage.
When did Roman historians start writing in Classical Latin instead of Greek?
Roman histories were not written in Classical Latin until the 2nd century BCE. The Origines by Cato the Elder marked this transition from Greek to Latin.
What is the difference between annalistic tradition and monographic tradition in Roman historiography?
The annalistic tradition wrote histories year-by-year starting from the founding of the city. Monographs emerged as works on single topics without following an annual timeline, such as Sallust's Bellum Catilinae about the conspiracy from 66 to 63 BC.
How did Julius Caesar use De Bello Gallico to justify his actions in Gaul?
Caesar wrote De Bello Gallico to respond to criticisms in Rome regarding his wars in the Gallic provinces. He framed the conflict as self-defense against invading Helvetians to portray himself as a superb military hero.
What years does Livy cover in Ab Urbe Condita and how many books survive today?
Ab Urbe Condita covered Roman history from the commonly accepted founding date of 753 BC to 9 BC. Only books 1, 10, 21, and 45 survive whole along with summaries of other books.
Why do modern scholars consider Tacitus Annales partisan despite his claim of writing sine ira studio?
Many passages in Annales ooze hatred toward emperors even though Tacitus claimed to write without anger or partiality. His style includes sharp phrases that convey strong opinions while hiding some content under radar.