Pope Alexander VI

• 1. Early Life And Family Origins

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  Roderic de Borja entered the world around 1431 in Xàtiva, a town nestled within the Kingdom of Valencia under the Crown of Aragon. His father was Jofré Llançol i Escrivà, who died before the 24th of March 1437. His mother was Isabel de Borja y Cavanilles, an Aragonese woman and distant cousin to his father. The family name appeared as Llançol in Valencian and Lanzol in Castillian dialects. Roderic adopted his mother's surname of Borja in 1455 after his maternal uncle Alonso de Borja rose to become Pope Callixtus III. He studied law at the University of Bologna and graduated as Doctor of Law with high distinction. At age fourteen in 1445, he began his ecclesiastical career as sacristan at the Cathedral of Valencia through his uncle's influence. By 1448, he held canonries at the cathedrals of Valencia, Barcelona, and Segorbe simultaneously. Pope Nicholas V allowed him to receive income from these positions while residing elsewhere. In 1456, Rodrigo became a cardinal-deacon of San Nicola in Carcere following his uncle's election as pope. That same year, he inherited the post of bishop of Valencia from his uncle.

• 2. Rise To Papal Power

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  Rodrigo Borgia served as vice-chancellor of the Holy Roman Church for thirty-five years until his own election to the papacy in 1492. This position proved incredibly powerful and lucrative throughout his long tenure. He maintained this role under four successive popes: Pius II, Paul II, Sixtus IV, and Innocent VIII. During the conclave of 1458, he supported Cardinal Piccolomini's election as Pope Pius II in exchange for retaining his chancellorship. When Pope Paul II died suddenly in 1471, Borgia continued his strategy of positioning himself as kingmaker. He gathered votes to make Francesco della Rovere Pope Sixtus IV, who rewarded him by promoting him to cardinal-bishop and consecrating him as Bishop of Albano. By 1483, Borgia had become the wealthiest cardinal in existence. The election of 1492 saw him at age sixty-one competing against Ascanio Sforza and Giuliano della Rovere. Rumors circulated that he bought votes with four mule-loads of silver, though historian Mallett suggests these claims emerged after the election. Johann Burchard recorded that the conclave was particularly expensive, with King Charles VIII of France bankrolling della Rovere to the tune of 200,000 gold ducats. On the 11th of August 1492, Borgia was elected pope and assumed the name Alexander VI.

• 3. Political Alliances And Italian Wars

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  Pope Alexander VI made many alliances to secure his position during the Second Italian War. He sought help from Charles VIII of France, who was allied to Ludovico il Moro, the de facto Duke of Milan. When Ferdinand I of Naples threatened to aid Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Alexander encouraged the French king's plan for conquering Naples. Through Spanish ambassadorial intervention, he made peace with Naples in July 1493 by arranging a marriage between his son Gioffre and Doña Sancha, granddaughter of Ferdinand I. Charles VIII advanced formal claims on the Kingdom of Naples in January 1494. Alexander authorized him to pass through Rome ostensibly on crusade against the Ottoman Empire without mentioning Naples. When the French invasion became reality, Pope Alexander VI recognized Alfonso II as king of Naples and concluded an alliance exchanging various fiefs for his sons. A military response set in motion failed badly when Neapolitan troops attacked Milan and the fleet seized Genoa. On September 8, Charles VIII crossed the Alps and joined Ludovico il Moro at Milan. The Papal States fell into turmoil as the powerful Colonna faction seized Ostia. Charles VIII rapidly advanced southward toward Rome. On December 31, Charles entered Rome with his troops, French cardinals, and Giuliano della Rovere. Alexander agreed to send Cesare as legate to Naples with the French army and deliver Cem Sultan to Charles VIII. He also gave Civitavecchia to the French king on the 16th of January 1495. The Holy League formed on the 31st of March 1495 among the pope, emperor, Venice, Ludovico il Moro, and Ferdinand of Spain to expel the French from Italy.

• 4. The Borgia Scandal And Nepotism

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  Alexander is one of the most controversial Renaissance popes because he acknowledged fathering several children by mistresses. His Italianized Valencian surname, Borgia, became a byword for libertinism and nepotism traditionally characterizing his pontificate. Of his many mistresses, Vannozza dei Cattanei was one favorite born in 1442 who had been married three times. Their relationship began in 1470 and produced four openly acknowledged children: Cesare born 1475, Giovanni born 1474 or 1476, Lucrezia born 1480, and Gioffre born 1481 or 1482. Rodrigo only legitimized these children after becoming pope. He had pretended they were his niece and nephews fathered by Vannozza's husbands. Another mistress was Giulia Farnese, wife of Orsino Orsini, who bore him Laura Orsini born 1492. Six other children including Girolama, Isabella, Pedro-Luiz, Giovanni Infans Romanus, Rodrigo, and Bernardo had uncertain maternal parentage. Alexander lavished vast sums on his family while they lived between their mother's home and the Papal Palace itself. In 1497, he annulled Lucrezia's marriage to Giovanni Sforza despite unsubstantiated counterclaims that Alexander and Cesare indulged in incestuous relations with her. The death of Duke of Gandia on the 14th of June 1497, when his corpse appeared in the Tiber the next day, marked a major domestic tragedy for the house of Borgia.

• 5. Papal Bulls And The New World

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  Alexander's papal bulls of 1493 confirmed Spanish crown rights in the New World following Christopher Columbus's discoveries in 1492. The bull Inter caetera dated the 4th of May 1493 divided title between Spain and Portugal along a demarcation line forming the basis of the Treaty of Tordesillas. Three bulls issued by Pope Alexander VI included Eximiae devotionis on the 3rd of May 1493, Inter caetera on the 4th of May 1493, and Dudum siquidem on the 23rd of September 1493. These granted rights to Spain regarding newly discovered lands in the Americas similar to those previously conferred on Portugal. Morales Padrón concluded these bulls gave power to enslave natives while Minnich asserted this slave trade was permitted to facilitate conversions to Christianity. Other historians and Vatican scholars strongly disagree with accusations that Alexander approved slavery. Thornberry noted Inter caetera applied in the Spanish Requirement of 1513 read to American Indians before hostilities began. They were given options to accept authority or face attack and subjugation. In 1993, the Indigenous Law Institute called on Pope John Paul II to revoke Inter caetera and make reparation for historical grief. A similar appeal followed in 1994 from the Parliament of World Religions.

• 6. Cultural Patronage And Religious Reform

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  Alexander VI was known for patronage of arts initiating a new architectural era in Rome with Bramante's arrival. Raphael, Michelangelo, and Pinturicchio all worked for him during his pontificate. He commissioned Pinturicchio to lavishly paint rooms in the Apostolic Palace now known as the Borgia Apartments. The pope took great interest in theatrics having Plautus's Menaechmi performed in his apartments. Beyond arts, Alexander encouraged education development by issuing a papal bull in 1495 at William Elphinstone's request founding King's College Aberdeen. This institution now forms an integral element of the University of Aberdeen. He also approved the University of Valencia in 1501. Alexander sought reforms of the increasingly irresponsible Curia putting together pious cardinals to move processes along. Planned reforms included new rules on Church property sales limiting cardinals to one diocese and stricter moral codes for clergy though these remained unimplemented. He demonstrated relatively benign treatment of Jews after their 1492 expulsion from Spain welcoming approximately 9,000 impoverished Iberian Jews to Papal States borders. Alexander declared they were permitted to lead lives free from Christian interference continuing their own rites gaining wealth and enjoying many privileges. He similarly allowed immigration of Jews expelled from Portugal in 1497 and from Provence in 1498.

• 7. Death And Posthumous Legacy

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  Cesare and Alexander dined with Cardinal Adriano Castellesi on the 6th of August 1503 before both fell ill with fever days later. Cesare eventually recovered while the aged Pontiff apparently had little chance according to Burchard's Diary details. On Saturday, the 12th of August 1503, the pope fell ill in morning then developed permanent fever between six and seven o'clock vespers. Thirteen ounces of blood drawn on August 15 as tertian ague supervened. At nine o'clock forenoon on Thursday, August 17, he took medicine. Between nine and ten o'clock Friday, August 18, he confessed to Bishop Gamboa of Carignola who read Mass to him. After Communion he gave Eucharist sitting in bed then ended Mass present five cardinals including Serra, Juan, Francesco Borgia, Casanova, and Loris. At vespers after Extreme Unction administered by Gamboa, he died at age seventy-two. Commentaries attribute death to malaria prevalent in Rome or another pestilence. The interregnum witnessed ancient tradition of violence and rioting as Cesare sent Don Micheletto to seize treasures before public announcement. Body exhibited next day covered by old tapestry having become greatly disfigured by rapid decomposition. Raphael Volterrano described it as revolting scene deformed blackened corpse prodigiously swollen exhaling infectious smell with brown drivel covering lips and nose. Ludwig von Pastor insisted decomposition perfectly natural owing to summer heat. Following Alexander's death, rival successor Julius II declared he would not live in same rooms Borgias occupied desecrating Holy Church as none before. Borgia Apartments remained sealed until nineteenth century despite Catholic apologists arguing behaviors received criticism were not atypical period.