Skip to content
— CH. 1 · SASANIAN MONASTERIES DESTROYED —

Persecution of Buddhists

~4 min read · Ch. 1 of 6
6 sections

  • In the third century, the Sasanian Empire overran Bactria and began to reshape the religious landscape of Central Asia. Although early rulers tolerated Buddhism, a shift occurred when Kartir, the Zoroastrian mowbadān-mowbad, took control of state policy in the second half of that same century. He ordered the destruction of several Buddhist monasteries located in what is now Afghanistan. This campaign targeted the amalgam of Buddhism and Zoroastrianism known as Buddha-Mazda, which Kartir viewed as heresy. Despite this violence, Buddhism recovered quickly after his death. The two Buddhas of Bamiyan were erected during this period under Sasanian rule, standing as monuments to a faith that faced intermittent but severe pressure from imperial authorities.

  • Central Asian Buddhism weakened significantly following the invasion of the Hephthalites around 440 CE. These forces conquered Sogdia and Gandhara before pushing into the Indo-Gangetic Plain. King Mihirakula ruled starting in 515 and actively suppressed Buddhism by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day Allahabad. His son later reversed this policy, allowing some recovery. Chinese scholars traveling through the region between the fifth and eighth centuries documented the decline of the Buddhist Sangha in northwestern India. Xuanzang wrote that numerous monasteries had been reduced to ruins by the Huns. The Hun ruler Mihirakula continued to suppress Buddhism by destroying monasteries as far away as Prayagraj, leaving a trail of destruction across the northwest.

  • The systematic dismantling of major centers like Nalanda and Vikramshila began with Arab and Turkic invasions from the eighth to twelfth centuries. Qutb-ud-din Aybak left defenseless territories that were the heart of Buddhist India in 1193. One of his generals, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, invaded Magadha and destroyed the Buddhist shrines at Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Odantapuri. This campaign caused the practice of Buddhism in East India to decline sharply. Many monks who escaped the massacre fled to Nepal, Tibet, and South India. Tamerlane also destroyed Buddhist establishments and raided areas where Buddhism had flourished. Mughal rulers like Aurangzeb later destroyed temples and replaced them with mosques, contributing to the long-term decline of the religion in the subcontinent.

  • A specific historical campaign ended the independent Buddhist state of Khotan through forced conversion and temple destruction around 1006 CE. The Islamic attacks started by the Turkic Karakhanid Satok Bughra Khan led to a war between Islamic Kashgar and Buddhist Khotan. Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan, ending its existence as an independent state. The war was described as a Muslim Jihad by Professor Takao Moriyasu. A poem written by Mahmud al-Kashgari on the conquest stated that they tore down idol-temples and shat on the Buddha's head. Idols were subjected to desecration when the country was conquered. Dunhuang's Cave 17 may have been sealed after caretakers heard that Khotan's buildings were razed. The Tażkirah literature describes battles where blood flowed like the Oxus river and heads littered the battlefield like stones until the infidels were defeated.

  • The eradication of religious practice under Khmer Rouge, Chinese Cultural Revolution, and Soviet policies across East and Southeast Asia marked a new era of persecution. The Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 to 1979 destroyed a third of Cambodia's monasteries and massacred 25,000 monks. Pol Pot believed Buddhism was a decadent affectation and sought to eliminate its mark on the nation. In China, Red Guards vandalized temples, statues, and sutras during the Cultural Revolution due to antireligious campaigns. Over 6,000 Buddhist monasteries in Tibet were ransacked and destroyed, mainly during this period. In Mongolia, Khorloogiin Choibalsan declared 17,000 monks to be enemies of the state and deported them to Siberian labor camps where many perished. Almost all of Mongolia's over 700 Buddhist monasteries were looted or destroyed before revolutionary democratization in 1990.

  • Contemporary violence against Buddhists in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand involves military regimes and insurgent groups. Between 1980 and 1995, the Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers committed at least 13 major massacres against indigenous Buddhist people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Kaukhali Massacre on the 25th of March 1980, saw an estimated 300 Chakma and Marma Buddhists killed. The Barkal Massacre on the 31st of May 1984, resulted in more than 400 deaths. Tensions flared into violent clashes in Meiktila, Mandalay Division in 2013 after a gold shop owner assaulted a Buddhist customer. A local monk was attacked with a sword and burnt alive, causing the situation to explode. In Thailand, civil war has led to cases of Buddhist civilians being beheaded by Muslim insurgents in Yala, Narathiwat, and Pattani.

Common questions

Who ordered the destruction of Buddhist monasteries in Bactria during the third century?

Kartir, the Zoroastrian mowbadān-mowbad, ordered the destruction of several Buddhist monasteries located in what is now Afghanistan. This campaign targeted the amalgam of Buddhism and Zoroastrianism known as Buddha-Mazda which Kartir viewed as heresy.

When did King Mihirakula begin his active suppression of Buddhism in Central Asia?

King Mihirakula ruled starting in 515 and actively suppressed Buddhism by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day Allahabad. His son later reversed this policy allowing some recovery after the initial wave of destruction.

Which general destroyed the Buddhist shrines at Nalanda and Vikramshila in 1193?

Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji invaded Magadha and destroyed the Buddhist shrines at Nalanda, Vikramasila, and Odantapuri. Qutb-ud-din Aybak left defenseless territories that were the heart of Buddhist India in 1193 before this invasion occurred.

What year did Yusuf Qadir Khan conquer Khotan to end its independent state?

A specific historical campaign ended the independent Buddhist state of Khotan through forced conversion and temple destruction around 1006 CE. Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan ending its existence as an independent state following a war described as a Muslim Jihad.

How many monks were massacred during the Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 to 1979?

The Khmer Rouge regime from 1975 to 1979 destroyed a third of Cambodia's monasteries and massacred 25,000 monks. Pol Pot believed Buddhism was a decadent affectation and sought to eliminate its mark on the nation.

When did the Kaukhali Massacre occur against Chakma and Marma Buddhists in Bangladesh?

The Kaukhali Massacre on the 25th of March 1980 saw an estimated 300 Chakma and Marma Buddhists killed. Between 1980 and 1995 the Bangladesh Army and Muslim settlers committed at least 13 major massacres against indigenous Buddhist people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

See all questions about Persecution of Buddhists →

All sources

201 references cited across the entry

  1. 1journalDeath in a Cave: Meditation, Deathbed Ritual, and Skeletal Imagery at Tape ShotorERIC M. GREENE — 2013
  2. 2bookThe Geography of Gandhāran Art Proceedings of the Second International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 22nd-23rd March, 2018Alexandra Vanleene — Archaeopress Archaeology — 2019
  3. 3webHistory of Buddhism in AfghanistanAlexander Berzin — 2001
  4. 4bookMerriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World ReligionsWendy Doniger — Merriam-Webster — 1999
  5. 5encyclopediaHistorical Development of Buddhism in India – Buddhism under the Guptas and Palas
  6. 6bookIndian Buddhism: A Survey With Bibliographical NotesHajime Nakamura — Motilal Banarsidass Publications — 1980
  7. 7webMonumental Absence The destruction of ancient Buddhist sitesDN Jha — 1 June 2018
  8. 8bookThe Early History of IndiaVincent A. Smith — Oxford University — 1908
  9. 9bookIndigenous states of northern India, circa 200 B.C. to 320 A.D.Bela Lahiri — University of Calcutta — 1974
  10. 10bookPopular Controversies in World HistoryCaleb Simmons et al. — ABC-CLIO — 2010
  11. 11journalOld Buddhist Shrines at Bodh-Gaya InscriptionsB.M. Barua — March 1930
  12. 12webThe 1,000-year-old manuscript and the stories it tellsFrancesca Harper — University of Cambridge — 2015-05-12
  13. 13bookIndia's Ancient ArtTom O'Neill — National Geographic Magazine — January 2008
  14. 14inlineAndy Rotman (Translator), Paul Harrison et al (Editors), Divine Stories - The Divyāvadāna Part 1, Wisdom Publications, Boston, , Introduction, Preview summary of book
  15. 15bookBuddhism: Buddhist origins and the early history of Buddhism in South and Southeast AsiaPaul Williams — Routledge — 2005
  16. 16inlineMichael Edmund Clarke, In the Eye of Power (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37
  17. 17webThe Kalmyk People: A Celebration of History and CultureAsian Art
  18. 18webRepublic of Kalmykia in Transition: Natural Resource Management After Disintegration of the Soviet UnionLead International
  19. 19bookHistory of The ArabsPhillip K. Hitti — Palgrave Macmillan — 2002
  20. 20bookIran in the Early Islamic Period: Politics, Culture, Administration and Public Life between the Arab and the Seljuk Conquests, 633-1055Brill Publishers — Bertold Spuler — 2014
  21. 21bookAn Archaeological History of Indian BuddhismLars Fogelin — Oxford University Press — 2015
  22. 22bookEarly History Of BuddhismDerryl L. MacLean — Brill Publishers — 1989
  23. 23bookBuddhism and Islam on the Silk RoadJohan Elverskog — University of Pennsylvania Press — 2011
  24. 24bookBuilding Communities in Gujarāt: Architecture and Society During the Twelfth Through Fourteenth CenturiesAlka Patel — Brill Publishers — 2004
  25. 25bookLost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to TamerlaneS. Frederick Starr — Princeton University Press — 2013
  26. 26bookBuddhism: Art and Values : a Collection of Research Papers and Keynote Addresses on the Evolution of Buddhist Art and Thought Across the Lands of AsiaLokesh Chandra — International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan — 2007
  27. 27bookA Concise History of Afghanistan in 25 Volumes, Volume 14Hamid Wahed Alikuza — Trafford Publishing — 2013
  28. 28bookThe Oxford Handbook of Iranian HistoryTouraj Daryaee — Oxford University Press — 2012
  29. 29bookIslam and Tibet: Interactions Along the Musk RoutesChristopher I. Beckwith — Ashgate Publishing — 2011
  30. 30bookThe Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian PeriodsCambridge University Press — 1983
  31. 31bookThe Places Where Men Pray Together: Cities in Islamic Lands, Seventh Through the Tenth CenturiesUniversity of Chicago Press — 2001
  32. 32bookHistory of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750Ahmad Hasan Dani, B.A. Litvinsky — UNESCO — 1996-01-01
  33. 33bookObjects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" EncounterFinbarr B. Flood — Princeton University Press — 2009-05-03
  34. 34bookLand of seven rivers: History of India's GeographySanjeev Sanyal — Penguin Books Limited — 15 November 2012
  35. 35webA Close View of Encounter between British Burma and British Bengal
  36. 36encyclopediaThe Turkish conquest
  37. 37bookAuthority and Identity in Medieval Islamic Historiography: Persian Histories from the PeripheriesMimi Hanaoka — Cambridge University Press — 2016-09-09
  38. 38bookMedieval Persia 1040-1797David Morgan — Routledge — 2016
  39. 39bookThe Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia 2 volumes: A Historical EncyclopediaTimothy May — ABC-CLIO — 7 November 2016
  40. 40bookBuddhism and Islam on the Silk RoadJohan Elverskog — Harvard University Press — 2011-06-06
  41. 41bookThe Mongol Conquests in World HistoryTimothy May — Reaktion Books — 2013-02-15
  42. 43bookInternational Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and OceaniaTrudy Ring et al. — Taylor & Francis — 1994
  43. 44bookKashgar: Oasis City on China's Old Silk RoadGeorge Michell et al. — Frances Lincoln — 2008
  44. 45bookEurasian Crossroads: A History of XinjiangJames A. Millward — Columbia University Press — 2007
  45. 46journalModular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur NationalismRian Thum — The Association for Asian Studies — August 2012
  46. 47bookBuddhism and Islam on the Silk RoadJohan Elverskog — University of Pennsylvania Press — 2011
  47. 48bookIslam and Tibet: Interactions Along the Musk RoutesJohan Elverskog — Ashgate Publishing — 2011
  48. 49bookThe Silk Road: A New HistoryValerie Hansen — Oxford University Press — 2012
  49. 50bookFrom Mahmud Kaşgari to Evliya ÇelebiRobert Dankoff — Isis Press — 2008
  50. 51journalThree Turkic Verse Cycles Relating to Inner Asian WarfareRobert Dankoff — 1979–1980
  51. 52bookDie Geschichte des uigurischen Manichäismus an der Seidenstrasse: Forschungen zu manichäischen Quellen und ihrem geschichtlichen HintergrundTakao Moriyasu — Otto Harrassowitz Verlag — 2004
  52. 53bookEurasian Crossroads: A History of XinjiangJames A. Millward — Columbia University Press — 2007
  53. 54web哈密回王简史-回王家族的初始
  54. 55bookThe Encyclopaedia of IslamHamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb et al. — Brill — 1998
  55. 56webThe Encyclopaedia of Islam - Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, Bernard Lewis, Johannes Hendrik Kramers, Charles Pellat, Joseph SchachtHamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb et al. — 2009-12-08
  56. 57bookThe Encyclopaedia of Islam - Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, Bernard Lewis, Johannes Hendrik Kramers, Charles Pellat, Joseph SchachtHamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb et al. — 2009-12-08
  57. 58bookThe Encyclopaedia of Islam - Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb, Bernard Lewis, Johannes Hendrik Kramers, Charles Pellat, Joseph SchachtHamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb et al. — 2009-12-08
  58. 59journal1898: The Beginning of the End for Chinese Religion?Vincent Goossaert — 2006
  59. 60webBurma: A Land Where Buddhist Monks Are Disrobed and Detained in DungeonsAssistance Association for Political Prisoners (Burma) — November 2004
  60. 61newsBurma's Buddhist monks take to the streetsAnuj Chopra — 20 September 2007
  61. 62bookRegion and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937Diana Lary — Cambridge University Press — 1974
  62. 63bookToward a modern Chinese Buddhism: Taixu's reformsDon Alvin Pittman — University of Hawaii Press — 2001
  63. 64bookRegion and nation: the Kwangsi clique in Chinese politics, 1925-1937Diana Lary — Cambridge University Press — 1974
  64. 65bookDilemmas The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unityUradyn Erden Bulag — Rowman & Littlefield — 2002
  65. 66bookChina's campaign to "Open up the West": national, provincial, and local perspectivesDavid S. G. Goodman — Cambridge University Press — 2004
  66. 67webbooklet web E.indd
  67. 68newsAncient Buddhas Will Not Be Rebuilt – UNESCOInter Press Service
  68. 69webPhotogrammetric reconstruction of the Great Buddha of Bamiyan, AfghanistanIdb.arch.ethz.ch
  69. 70journalMega Copper Deal in Afghanistan Fuels Rush to Save Ancient TreasuresHannah Bloch — September 2015
  70. 71bookI Am Malala: The Girl Who Stood Up for Education and Was Shot by the TalibanMalala Yousafzai — Little, Brown — 8 October 2013
  71. 72news'I am Malala': But then, we all are Malalas, aren't we?W.A. Wijewardena — 17 February 2014
  72. 73news'I am Malala': But Then, We All Are Malalas, Aren't We?W.A Wijewardena — 17 February 2014
  73. 74newsAttack on giant Pakistan Buddha12 September 2007
  74. 75newsAnother attack on the giant Buddha of Swat10 November 2007
  75. 76newsTaliban and traffickers destroying Pakistan's Buddhist heritage22 October 2012
  76. 77newsTaliban trying to destroy Buddhist art from the Gandhara period27 November 2009
  77. 78newsArchbishop of Lahore: Sharia in the Swat Valley is contrary to Pakistan's founding principlesQaiser Felix — 21 April 2009
  78. 79newsPakistan police foil huge artefact smuggling attemptJaffer Rizvi — 6 July 2012
  79. 80newsBuddha attacked by Taliban gets facelift in Pakistan25 June 2012
  80. 81newsIconic Buddha in Swat valley restored after nine years when Taliban defaced itFazal Khaliq — 7 November 2016
  81. 82webChittagong Hill Tracts: Sabita Chakma's Murder Condemned By CHT CommissionUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization — 19 February 2014
  82. 83webChittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh – rapists act with impunityMark McEvoy — 3 April 2014
  83. 84webChittagong Hill Tracts: Town of Chakma Villagers Attacked and Houses Burned DownUnrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization — 18 December 2014
  84. 85bookStateless in South Asia The Chakmas Between Bangladesh and IndiaDeepak K. Singh — Sage Publications — 2010
  85. 86bookLife Is Not OursIWGIA — The Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission — 2000
  86. 87bookUnlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill TractsAmnesty International — 1986
  87. 88journalJana SamhatiR.S. Dewan — December 1988
  88. 89journalJana SamhatiR.S. Dewan — September 1989
  89. 90bookLife Is Not OursThe Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission — 1994
  90. 91bookLife Is Not OursThe Chittagong Hill Tracts Commission — April 1994
  91. 92bookBangladesh Unlawful Killings and Torture in the Chittagong Hill TractsAmnesty International — September 1986
  92. 93bookUnlawful Killings in Chittagong Hill TractsAmnesty International — September 1986
  93. 94bookThe Charge of GenocideOrganizing Committee Chittagong Hill Tracts Campaign — 1986
  94. 95journalLife is Not OursMay 1991
  95. 96newsProtesters burn Bangladesh Buddhist templesAl Jazeera — 30 September 2012
  96. 97newsReligious attacks lead to 300 arrests in Bangladesh2 October 2012
  97. 98newsConversions: LBA blames govt13 January 2000
  98. 99newsWorld Heritage Day: Five must-visit sites in India18 April 2015
  99. 100news5 injured in multiple blasts at Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya7 July 2013
  100. 101news13 bombs were planted in Mahabodhi temple complex: Shinde8 July 2013
  101. 102newsRanchi document helps NIA crack Bodh Gaya blast caseDeeptiman Tiwari — 6 November 2013
  102. 103newsPatna terror cell behind Bodh Gaya strike too: NIARahi Gaikwad et al. — 7 November 2013
  103. 104newsIslamism Set Stage for Maldives CoupTom Wright — 11 February 2012
  104. 105newsVandalism at Maldives Museum Stirs Fears of ExtremismVikas Bajaj — 13 February 2012
  105. 106newsMaldives mob smashes Buddhist statues in national museumAl Arabiya — 8 February 2012
  106. 107newsSelf-denial of heritage in Maldives sends message to Establishments16 February 2012
  107. 108newsMob storms National Museum, destroys Buddhist statues: "A significant part of our heritage is lost now"Hawwa Lubna — 9 February 2012
  108. 109av mediaAttack on the Maldives National Museum (After the Island President)M Stewart — 1 April 2013
  109. 110newsTrouble in paradise: Maldives and Islamic extremismAl Arabiya — 12 February 2012
  110. 111news35 Invaluable Hindu and Buddhist Statues Destroyed in Maldives by Extremist Islamic Group23 February 2012
  111. 112newsVandalised Maldives museum to seek India's help15 February 2012
  112. 113newsMaldives museum reopens minus smashed Hindu imagesKrishan Francis — 14 February 2012
  113. 114newsIslamists destroy some 30 Buddhist statues15 February 2012
  114. 115webRape-Murder of a Buddhist girl by Muslims led to riots: Myanmar Ambassador22 July 2012
  115. 116webThe Dark Side of Transition: Violence Against Muslims in MyanmarThe International Crisis Group — 1 October 2013
  116. 117newsSpecial Report: Buddhist monks incite Muslim killings in MyanmarJason Szep — 8 April 2013
  117. 118newsInsurgents Behead Buddhist in ThailandFox News — 14 January 2007
  118. 119newsIn Muslim Thailand, teachers face rising threatSeth Mydans — 4 July 2005
  119. 120newsThailand News Woman teacher shot dead in Pattani, body burned14 March 2014
  120. 121newsSoutheast Asia news – South Thailand: 'They're getting fiercer'2006-12-07
  121. 122newsThree Buddhist women dead in south Thailand attackSurapan Boonthanom — 2007-03-19
  122. 123newsFour soldiers killed in roadside attacks in Thailand's insurgency-plagued south4 June 2015
  123. 124newsMotorcycle blast kills two in southern Thailand bomb attacksPanarat Thepgumpanat et al. — 17 September 2015
  124. 125newsThree Buddhist Temples Attacked With Explosives (Thailand)Pluralism Project — 2004-05-16
  125. 126magazineOld Sterile Death Leaves its Mark Over Sinkiang13 December 1943
  126. 127bookConservation of ancient sites on the Silk Road: proceedings of the second International Conference on the Conservation of Grotto Sites, Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, People's Republic of ChinaSusan Whitfield — Getty Publications — 2010
  127. 128newsMystery grips Urumqi as Apsara statue demolishedSaibal Dasgupta — 22 August 2012
  128. 129news'Flying Apsara' statue razed in ChinaSaibal Dasgupta — 22 August 2012
  129. 130newsDispatches From Xinjiang: The Rise Of Buddhism In The Far WestBeige Wind — 4 August 2014
  130. 131newsNine bombs exploded in the 1,100-year-old Borobudur temple in...
  131. 132news3 Orang terluka akibat bom di Vihara Ekayana4 August 2014
  132. 133newsBuddhist monk threatened by Islamists (Video)
  133. 134newsVihara, pagodas burned down, plundered in N. Sumatra
  134. 135newsBomb placed near Buddhist temple door in Aceh
  135. 136newsMissionaries Arrested in Northeast India2003-08-15
  136. 137newsNational Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) - Christian Aggression2016-04-29
  137. 138webIncidents involving National Liberation Front of Tripura, India, South Asia Terrorism Porta
  138. 139bookThe Politics Behind Anti Christian Violence: A Compilation of Investigation Committee Reports Into Acts of Violence Against the Christian MinoritiesRam Puniyani — Media House — 2006
  139. 140newsChristian Conversions and Terrorism in North-East India - Christian Aggression2016-04-27
  140. 141newsChurch backing Tripura rebels
  141. 142journalThe Many Meanings of Iconoclasm: Warrior and Christian Temple-Shrine Destruction in Late Sixteenth Century JapanAlan Strathern — 2020-11-18
  142. 143webA Little Faith: Christianity and the JapaneseIshikawa Akito — 2019-11-22
  143. 144bookA vision betrayed: the Jesuits in Japan and China, 1542-1742Andrew C. Ross — Orbis Books — 1994
  144. 145bookChrist in Japanese Culture: Theological Themes in Shusaku Endo's Literary WorksEmi Mase-Hasegawa — BRILL — 2008
  145. 146newsPresident Embarrassed Over Angry BuddhistsKim Rahn — 30 July 2008
  146. 147newsBuddhists set to protest against Lee's religious biasHANKYOREH — 22 August 2008
  147. 148newsKorea News and Korean Business and Economy, Pyongyang News1 February 2008
  148. 149webNews & Issues - Korean President reaches out to Buddhist leaders
  149. 150web대구·경북 범불교도대회 '정부규탄' 대신 '호법결의'로 – 1등 인터넷뉴스 조선닷컴News.chosun.com
  150. 151webDaum 미디어다음 – 뉴스Media.daum.net — 30 September 2008
  151. 152webBuddhaNet.Net: Sacred Island - A Buddhist Pilgrim's Guide to Sri Lanka: Kelaniya
  152. 153webBuddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short HistoryH.R. Perera — Buddhist Publication Society — 2007
  153. 154inlineBuddhists must safeguard religion, Sangha – Thera , Daily News
  154. 155bookAmerican SutraDuncan Ryuken Williams — Harvard University Press — 2019
  155. 156news6 Buddhist Temples Vandalized in OC in November, 2 Women Caught on CameraNextShark — 30 November 2020
  156. 157newsLAPD investigates vandalism incident at Buddhist temple in Little Tokyo26 February 2021
  157. 158newsErrors Escalated TooBernard B. Fall — 16 May 1975
  158. 159magazineThe Religious Crisis14 June 1963
  159. 160newsNgo Dinh Diem: South Vietnamese presidentCNN
  160. 161magazineHalberstam's HistoryMark Moyar — 5 July 2007
  161. 162webRethinking History and News Media in South VietnamTan Trung Nguyen Quoc — University of Oregon — November 20, 2023
  162. 163journal <!--deny citation bot-->A Secular State for a Religious Nation: The Republic of Vietnam and Religious Nationalism, 1946–1963Phi-Vân Nguyen — 2018
  163. 164journal"Unity" and "Sovereignty": Key Concepts of a Militant Buddhist Organization in the Present Conflict in Sri LankaPeter Schalk — 1988-01-01
  164. 165bookReligious Tolerance in World ReligionsBradley S. Clough — Templeton Foundation Press — 2008
  165. 166webThe Kingdom of PolonnaruwaEducational Publications Department, Sri Lanka
  166. 167bookBuddhism, Conflict and Violence in Modern Sri LankaJohn Clifford Holt — Routledge — 2006
  167. 168bookBuddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri LankaStanley Jeyaraja Tambiah — University of Chicago Press — 1992
  168. 169webගණින්නාන්සේලා කියවිය යුතු සංඝරජ වැලවිට සරණංකර චරිතය
  169. 170inlineMayadunne and Rajasinha I The Island - 20 May 2011
  170. 171bookEmergency '58: The Story of the Ceylon Race RiotsTarzie Vittachi — Andre-Deutsch
  171. 172reportReport of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry Into the Incidents Which Took Place Between 13th August and 15th SeptemberM. C. Sansoni — Government Printing, Sri Lanka — July 1980
  172. 173bookBuddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri LankaStanley Tambiah — University of Chicago Press — 15 July 1992
  173. 174reportCountry Reports on Human Rights Practices: Report Submitted to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate and Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives by the Department of State in Accordance with Sections 116(d) and 502B(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as AmendedU.S. Government Printing Office
  174. 175reportAnnual Report on International Religious Freedom 2004, November 2004, 108-2 Joint Committee Print, S. Prt. 108-59, *
  175. 176reportThe War And Its Consequences in the Amparai DistrictUniversity Teachers for Human Rights (Jaffna) — 16 October 1990
  176. 177journalFormation of Ethnocentrism and the Perpetuation of Hatred: The Role of Socialization and Media in the Sri Lankan ConflictSasanka Perera — 1995
  177. 178newsBuddhist Monks and Rana Rulers: A History of PersecutionAngela Dietrich — 1996
  178. 179webTheravada Buddhism in Modern NepalLumbini Nepalese Buddha Dharma Society (UK)
  179. 180newsThe monks in yellow robesKamal Ratna Tuladhar — 7 April 2012
  180. 181bookSyamukapu: The Lhasa Newars of Kalimpong and KathmanduDS Kansakar Hilker — Vajra Publications — 2005
  181. 182bookMillennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical CasesRichard C. Salter — Syracuse University Press — 2000
  182. 183webChronology, 1994-2004 - Cambodian Genocide Program - Yale University
  183. 184newsNie: Remembering the deaths of 1.7-million Cambodians
  184. 185newsPhnom Penh Journal; Lord Buddha Returns, With Artists His SoldiersPhilip Shenon — 1992-01-02
  185. 186bookPopulation Aging in ChinaEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific — 1989
  186. 187newsReorganizing the United Front Work Department: New Structures for a New Era of Diaspora and Religious Affairs WorkAlex Joske — 9 May 2019
  187. 188newsHuman rights abuses up as Olympics approach2007
  188. 189journalArea Tibetans mourn their nation's lost independenceNolan Zavoral — 10 March 2001
  189. 190newsTibetan monks: A controlled life2008-03-20
  190. 191bookHidden Tibet: History of Independence and OccupationSergius L. Kuzmin — Library of Tibetan Works and Archives — 2011
  191. 192newsChina announces "civilizing" atheism drive in TibetBritish Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) — 12 January 1999
  192. 193newsMongolia's monks make a comeback18 July 2006
  193. 194magazineMongolia: The Bhudda and the KhanMarc Cramer
  194. 195bookThe Oxford Handbook of AtheismStephen Bullivant et al. — OUP Oxford — 21 November 2013
  195. 196bookReligion and Violence: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict from Antiquity to the PresentJeffrey Ian Ross — Routledge — 4 March 2015
  196. 197journalBuddhism in the Soviet Union: Annihilation or survival?Hans Bräker — 2008
  197. 198newsAsia Times: Buddhist revival tangles with politics1999-08-26
  198. 199bookOf Religion and Empire: Missions, Conversion, and Tolerance in Tsarist RussiaRobert P. Geraci et al. — Cornell University Press — 2001
  199. 200bookViệt Nam Phật giáo Sử luậnNguyễn Lang — 2019
  200. 201webVietnam: Religious Freedom DeniedHuman Rights Watch — 8 May 2008
  201. 202webVietnam — Thich Nhat Hanh responds to Bat Nha crackdown with Zen koan - Buddhachannel