Mukden incident
Japanese economic presence and political interest in Manchuria had been growing ever since the end of the Russo-Japanese War. The Treaty of Portsmouth that ended the war granted Japan the lease of the South Manchuria Railway branch from Changchun to Lüshun. This railway zone became a focal point for Japanese expansionist ambitions. The Japanese government claimed control included all rights China granted to Russia in the 1896 Li-Lobanov Treaty. They asserted absolute administration within the South Manchuria Railway Zone. Japanese railway guards stationed there were regular soldiers who frequently conducted maneuvers outside the railway areas. Meanwhile, the newly formed Chinese government attempted to reassert authority after over a decade of fragmented warlord dominance. China started claiming treaties between itself and Japan were invalid. New acts expelled Japanese nationals including Koreans and Taiwanese without compensation. Manchurian warlord Zhang Zuolin tried to deprive Japanese concessions too but was assassinated by the Japanese Kwantung Army. Zhang Xueliang his son joined the Nanjing Government led by Chiang Kai-shek from anti-Japanese sentiment. Official Japanese objections to oppression against Japanese nationals were rejected by Chinese authorities. The 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict further increased tensions in the Northeast leading toward the Mukden incident. Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueliang's forces revealed Chinese military weaknesses. Japanese Kwantung Army officers noted these weaknesses quickly. The Soviet performance stunned Japanese officials. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reaffirmed Japan's commitment to be dominant power in Manchuria. By 1930 the Kwantung Army realized they faced a growing Red Army. Plans to conquer the Northeast accelerated as time drew near.
Colonel Seishirō Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara independently devised plans to prompt Japan to invade Manchuria by provoking an incident. They believed conflict would benefit Japan. After Minister of War Jirō Minami dispatched Major General Yoshitsugu Tatekawa to curb insubordination, Itagaki and Ishiwara decided staging their own attack was necessary. They chose to sabotage rail section near Liutiao Lake. This area had no official name and was not militarily important but sat only eight hundred meters from Chinese garrison of Beidaying where troops under Young Marshal Zhang Xueliang were stationed. The plan aimed to attract Chinese troops via explosion then blame them for causing disturbance providing pretext for formal invasion. Sabotage appeared more convincing as calculated Chinese attack on essential target making expected Japanese reaction seem legitimate measure protecting vital railway of industrial and economic importance. Japanese press labeled site Liutiao Ditch or Liutiao Bridge though reality showed small railway section laid on flat land. Choice placed explosives at this site to preclude extensive rebuilding needed if actual bridge existed. Colonel Kenji Doihara and Major Takayoshi Tanaka completed plans by the 31st of May 1931. Execution occurred when 1st Lieutenant Suemori Kawamoto of Independent Garrison Unit placed explosives near tracks far enough away to do real damage. At around 10:20 p.m. September 18 explosives detonated. Explosion minor damaged only 1.5-meter section one side rail. Train from Changchun passed damaged track without difficulty arriving Shenyang at 10:30 p.m.
Morning September 19 two Japanese artillery pieces installed at Shenyang officers club opened fire National Revolutionary Army garrison nearby responding alleged Chinese attack railway. Zhang Xueliang's small air force destroyed soldiers fled destroyed Beidaying barracks five hundred Japanese troops attacked seven thousand Chinese garrison. NRA resisted defeated fled evening fighting over Japanese occupied Mukden costing five hundred Chinese lives only two Japanese dead. Commander-in-Chief Kwantung Army General Shigeru Honjō initially appalled invasion plan enacted without permission eventually convinced Ishiwara give approval after act. Honjō moved headquarters Mukden ordered General Senjuro Hayashi Chosen Army Japan Korea send reinforcements. At 04:the 0th of September 19 Mukden declared secure. Zhang Xueliang personally ordered men not fight store weapons when Japanese invaded. Soldiers proceeded occupy garrison major cities Changchun Dandong surrounding areas minimal difficulty. After seizing radio broadcasting facilities October 6 Kwantung Army began broadcasting propaganda aimed increasing Japanese public opinion favor actions. November General Ma Zhanshan acting governor Heilongjiang began resistance provincial army followed January Generals Ding Chao Li Du local Jilin provincial forces. Despite resistance within five months Imperial Japanese Army overrun all major towns cities provinces Liaoning Jilin Heilongjiang.
Chinese government turned international community peaceful resolution Foreign Ministry issued strong protest Japanese government called immediate stop military operations Manchuria appealed League Nations September 19. October 24 League passed resolution mandating withdrawal Japanese troops completed by the 16th of November. Japan rejected resolution insisted direct negotiations Chinese government. Negotiations went intermittently result little. November 20 conference convened Guangzhou faction Kuomintang insisted Chiang Kai-shek step take responsibility Manchurian debacle. December 15 Chiang resigned Chairman Nationalist government replaced Premier Republic China Sun Fo son Sun Yat-sen. Jinzhou another city Liaoning lost early January 1932 Wang Jingwei replaced Sun Fo as Premier. the 7th of January 1932 United States Secretary State Henry Stimson issued Stimson Doctrine stating US would not recognize government established result Japanese actions Manchuria. January 14 League commission headed Victor Bulwer-Lytton 2nd Earl Lytton disembarked Shanghai examine situation. March puppet state Manchukuo established former emperor China Puyi installed head state. October 2 Lytton Report published rejected Japanese claim invasion occupation act self-defense though did not assert Japanese perpetrated initial bombing railroad. Report ascertained Manchukuo product Japanese military aggression recognizing Japan legitimate concerns Manchuria economic ties there. League refused acknowledge Manchukuo independent nation. Japan resigned League Nations March 1933 thereafter became aggressive China.
Different opinions exist cause explosion Japanese railroad Mukden. Strong evidence points young officers Japanese Kwantung Army conspired cause blast without direct orders Tokyo. Post-war investigations confirmed original bomb planted failed explode replacement had planted. Resulting explosion enabled Kwantung Army accomplish goal triggering conflict Chinese troops stationed Manchuria subsequent establishment puppet state Manchukuo. The 9.18 Incident Exhibition Museum Shenyang opened People's Republic China the 18th of September 1991 takes position explosives planted Japan. Yūshūkan museum located Yasukuni Shrine Tokyo also places blame members Kwantung Army. David Bergamini book Japan's Imperial Conspiracy 1971 detailed chronology events both Manchuria Tokyo surrounding Mukden incident. Bergamini concludes greatest deception Mukden incident Japanese invasion planned junior hot-headed officers without formal approval Japanese government. Historian James Weland concluded senior commanders tacitly allowed field operatives proceed own initiative then endorsed result positive outcome assured. August 2006 Yomiuri Shimbun Japan top-selling newspaper published results year-long research project general question responsibility Shōwa war. Newspaper blamed ambitious Japanese militarists politicians impotent rein prevent insubordination. Debate focused how incident handled League Nations subsequent Lytton Report. A.J.P. Taylor wrote face first serious challenge League buckled capitulated. Washington Naval Conference 1921 guaranteed certain degree Japanese hegemony East Asia. Any intervention America breach mentioned agreement. Britain crisis recently forced gold standard. Only response powers moral condemnation.
Each year 10:00 a.m. the 18th of September air-raid sirens sound several minutes numerous major cities across China. Provinces include Heilongjiang Jilin Liaoning Hainan others. In popular culture Mukden incident depicted Adventures Tintin comic Blue Lotus though book places bombing near Shanghai performed Japanese agents exaggerate incident. Chinese patriotic song Along Songhua River describes lives people lost homeland Northeast China after Mukden incident. Akira Kurosawa 1946 film No Regrets Our Youth subject Mukden incident debated. Junji Kinoshita play A Japanese Called Otto opens characters discussing Mukden incident. 2010 Japanese anime Night Raid 1931 13-episode spy pulp series set 1931 Shanghai Manchuria Episode 7 Incident specifically covers Mukden incident. Dutch death metal band Hail Bullets covers event song The Mukden Incident 2010 album On Divine Winds concept album Pacific Ocean theatre World War II. Television drama Kazoku Game deals history textbook controversy episode 4 mentioning Mukden incident. 2024 Chinese drama War Faith depicts Mukden incident episode 24. In 2017 Chinese Communist Party officially recognized Mukden incident start War Resistance Empire Japan opposed 1937 Marco Polo Bridge incident. Historian Emily Matson stated shift official timeline part domestic legitimizing narrative aims enhance CCP prestige discredit Nationalist government nonresistance policy time.
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Common questions
Who planned the Mukden incident railway explosion in 1931?
Colonel Seishirō Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara independently devised plans to provoke Japan into invading Manchuria by staging a false flag attack. They chose to sabotage a rail section near Liutiao Lake without direct orders from Tokyo.
When did the Mukden incident railway explosion occur?
Explosives detonated at around 10:20 p.m. on the 18th of September 1931. The event is commemorated annually at 10:00 a.m. on the 18th of September across major cities in China including Heilongjiang Jilin Liaoning and Hainan.
Where was the Mukden incident railway explosion located?
The sabotage occurred on a small railway section laid on flat land near Liutiao Lake only eight hundred meters from the Chinese garrison of Beidaying. This area had no official name and sat close to troops under Young Marshal Zhang Xueliang.
Why did Japanese officers stage the Mukden incident railway explosion?
Japanese Kwantung Army officers believed conflict would benefit Japan and aimed to create a pretext for formal invasion. Plans to conquer the Northeast accelerated as they noted Chinese military weaknesses following the Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueliang's forces.
What happened after the Mukden incident railway explosion in Manchuria?
Following the explosion Japanese troops attacked seven thousand Chinese garrison and occupied major cities including Changchun Dandong and surrounding areas within five months. By March 1932 puppet state Manchukuo was established with former emperor China Puyi installed as head of state.