Defense of the Great Wall
On the night of the 1st of January 1933, a few hand grenades exploded near the fortified eastern end of the Great Wall. The Imperial Japanese Army maintained a small garrison of around 200 men at this location called Shanhaiguan. A commander from that garrison staged an incident by firing shots to create a pretext for action. This event occurred after terms of the 1901 Boxer Rebellion accord allowed Japan to keep troops there. The Kwantung Army used the explosion as an excuse to demand evacuation of pass defenses from Chinese forces. The Chinese 626th Regiment of the Northeastern Army guarded Shanhaiguan and refused to leave their positions. When negotiations failed, the Japanese 8th Division issued an ultimatum before attacking with support from four armored trains and ten tanks. Close air support came from bombers while warships of the IJN 2nd Fleet shelled the area with a dozen vessels offshore. On January 3, Chinese regimental commander Shi Shian evacuated his positions after losing half his force.
The province of Rehe sat on the northern side of the Great Wall and became the next target for Japanese expansion. Declaring the province historically part of Manchuria, the Japanese Army initially hoped to secure it through defection of General Tang Yulin. That plan failed so military options were put into action immediately. The Chief of Staff requested Emperor Hirohito's sanction for the strategic operation against Chinese forces in Rehe. The Emperor approved the request but stated explicitly that the army was not to go beyond the Great Wall. On the 23rd of February 1933, the offensive launched across the region. Chaoyang and Kailu fell by February 25. On March 2, the Japanese 4th Cavalry Brigade encountered resistance from Sun Dianying's forces. After days of fighting they took Chifeng. By March 4, Japanese cavalry and the 1st Special Tank Company captured Chengde which served as the capital of Rehe.
Over twenty close assaults were launched against Chinese positions along the wall during this campaign. Sword-armed Northwestern Army soldiers repelled many attacks with traditional blades known as dadaos. The Chinese army remained significantly underarmed compared to their Japanese opponents throughout the conflict. Many units were predominantly equipped with handguns, hand grenades, and traditional Chinese swords instead of modern rifles. Limited supplies included trench mortars, heavy machine guns, light machine guns and standard rifles. Beaten back by overwhelming Japanese firepower on May 20, the Chinese army retreated from remaining positions on the Great Wall. Several individual NRA units like the He Zhuguo platoon managed to hold off better-equipped Japanese forces for up to three days before being overrun. Some divisions won major victories in passes like Xifengkou and Gubeikou by using ramparts to move soldiers between sectors just like Ming dynasty troops had done centuries earlier.
Falling back from Rehe, Wan Fulin's 32nd Army retreated to Lengkou Pass while Zhang Zuoxiang's 37th Division moved to Xifengkou Pass. General Guan Linzheng's 25th Division took position at Gubeikou Pass. On March 4, the 139th Division of the KMT 32nd Army held Lengkou Pass against advancing enemies. By March 7, the KMT 67th Army withstood attacks by the 16th Brigade of the Japanese 8th Division at Gubeikou Pass. On March 11, Japanese troops pushed up to the Great Wall itself. On March 21, the Japanese captured Yiyuankou Pass after fierce fighting. The KMT 29th Army evacuated from Xifengkou Pass on April 8 following heavy losses. On April 11, Japanese troops retook Lengkou Pass after dozens of seesaw fights over the defenses. Chinese forces at Jielingkou abandoned that pass during the same period. On May 20, the entire Chinese army retreated from their remaining positions along the wall.
On March 9, Chiang Kai-shek held discussions with Zhang Xueliang in Baoding about resisting the Japanese invasion. Chiang began relocating his forces away from campaigns against the Jiangxi Soviet including units under Huang Jie and Xu Tingyao. He also called over Fu Zuoyi's 7th Army from Suiyuan to reinforce defenses. However these actions arrived too late and reinforcements proved insufficient to stop the Japanese advance. On March 12, Zhang Xueliang resigned his post to He Yingqin who became new leader of the Northeastern Army. He Yingqin was assigned duty of securing defensive positions along the Great Wall. Chiang Kai-shek had hoped to use forces from Huang Jie, Xu Tingyao and Guan Linzheng but timing prevented effective deployment. The political situation complicated military strategy as leadership changes occurred mid-campaign.
On the 22nd of May 1933, Chinese and Japanese representatives met at Tangpu in Tianjin to negotiate an end to conflict. The resulting Tanggu Truce created a demilitarized zone extending one hundred kilometers south of the Great Wall. This zone prohibited entry by the Chinese army thus greatly reducing territorial security for China proper. Japanese forces were permitted to use reconnaissance aircraft or ground units to ensure compliance with terms. Furthermore the Chinese government was forced to acknowledge de facto independence of Manchukuo and loss of Rehe province. The agreement established boundaries that would remain contested until later conflicts erupted. The campaign ended on the 31st of May 1933 after months of fighting across multiple passes.
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Common questions
What happened on the night of the 1st of January 1933 at Shanhaiguan during the Defense of the Great Wall?
A few hand grenades exploded near the fortified eastern end of the Great Wall while a commander from the Imperial Japanese Army garrison staged an incident by firing shots to create a pretext for action. The Kwantung Army used this explosion as an excuse to demand evacuation of pass defenses from Chinese forces.
When did the Japanese offensive launch across Rehe province in the Defense of the Great Wall campaign?
The offensive launched across the region on the 23rd of February 1933 after Emperor Hirohito approved the request for strategic operation against Chinese forces. Chaoyang and Kailu fell by February 25, and Chengde was captured by March 4 when Japanese cavalry and the 1st Special Tank Company took the capital of Rehe.
How did Chinese soldiers defend positions along the wall during the Defense of the Great Wall campaign?
Sword-armed Northwestern Army soldiers repelled many attacks with traditional blades known as dadaos despite being significantly underarmed compared to their Japanese opponents. Many units were predominantly equipped with handguns, hand grenades, and traditional Chinese swords instead of modern rifles or heavy machine guns.
What dates marked key retreats and captures of passes during the Defense of the Great Wall campaign?
Chinese forces retreated from remaining positions on the Great Wall on May 20 after being beaten back by overwhelming Japanese firepower. The KMT 29th Army evacuated from Xifengkou Pass on April 8 following heavy losses while Japanese troops retook Lengkou Pass on April 11 after dozens of seesaw fights over the defenses.
Why did Chiang Kai-shek relocate his forces away from campaigns against the Jiangxi Soviet during the Defense of the Great Wall?
Chiang Kai-shek began relocating his forces including units under Huang Jie and Xu Tingyao to reinforce defenses against the Japanese invasion in Baoding. These actions arrived too late and reinforcements proved insufficient to stop the Japanese advance due to timing preventing effective deployment.
When was the Tanggu Truce signed and what terms did it establish for the Defense of the Great Wall campaign?
Chinese and Japanese representatives met at Tangpu in Tianjin on the 22nd of May 1933 to negotiate an end to conflict resulting in the Tanggu Truce. This agreement created a demilitarized zone extending one hundred kilometers south of the Great Wall that prohibited entry by the Chinese army and acknowledged de facto independence of Manchukuo.