Lord's Prayer
The Lord's Prayer, known in Greek as Πάτερ ἡμῶν and in Latin as Pater Noster, once doubled as a kitchen timer. Before clocks became common, cooks measured time in recitations, so a recipe might tell you to simmer the broth for three Lord's Prayers.
That practical use sits beside a far weightier role. This short text is a central Christian prayer attributed to Jesus, with petitions about God's holiness, will and kingdom, followed by requests for human needs.
Yet the words are not fixed. Two Gospels preserve different wordings, translators have argued for centuries over single terms, and denominations that share the prayer still say parts of it differently.
Which version came first, and who has the stronger claim to the original? Why do some congregations ask forgiveness for debts while others ask forgiveness for trespasses? And how did a prayer end up as a tool for comparing the languages of the world?
The Gospel of Mark never mentions the prayer, yet both Matthew and Luke do, and their texts are not identical. Matthew sets it inside the Sermon on the Mount, with seven petitions. The first three address God, and the other four concern human needs.
Luke's version is shorter. Only Matthew includes the line "Your will be done" and the petition to be rescued from the evil one, or from evil.
Scholars have long tried to explain the gap. Supporters of the two-source hypothesis point to the absence from Mark and conclude that both Gospels drew on the hypothetical source called Q. Other theories, in which Luke used Matthew or the reverse, are growing in popularity.
Davies and Allison thought that more than one version may have circulated in the sources behind the Gospels. They did not find it plausible that Luke simply used Matthew.
If one text did build on the other, the scholars Martin Dibelius and Joachim Jeremias give priority to Matthew. Their reasoning is that in the early period, before wordings were fixed, liturgical texts were elaborated, expanded and enriched.
Michael Goulder, Thomas J. Mosbo and Ken Olson read the evidence the other way. For them, the shorter Lukan prayer is a reworking of Matthew that strips out unnecessary verbiage and repetition.
The question of authenticity divides scholars less sharply. Most accept the prayer as genuine, and Dale Allison and John P. Meier are confident that the historical Jesus composed it. Craig Keener, however, describes it as a Matthean construct, since the Gospels are known for reshaping narratives.
A separate witness appears in the Didache, in chapter VIII. This text, reckoned to date from the first century, reports a version that closely resembles Matthew's and the one prayed today.
The grammar has its own pattern. Most of the verbs are aorist imperatives, with third person passive forms in the first part and second person active forms in the last. Those closing verbs raise the question of what, exactly, each petition asks for.
Augustine of Hippo began his analysis from Jesus' remark that the Father already knows what people need before they ask. In his view, people use words in prayer to remind themselves what to consider, not to instruct the Lord or sway him.
He applied this to the opening petitions. Praying "Hallowed be your name" asks that a name that is always holy be treated as holy among people, which helps people rather than God. The kingdom will arrive whether anyone wills it or not, and the petition stirs the desire to deserve a place in it. Catholic worshippers still meet his commentary in the Office of Readings.
Rowan Williams, a former archbishop of Canterbury, reads the first petition as a warning against trivializing God. A holy name should not become a tool for putting other people down, or a kind of magic for feeling safe.
Richard Challoner gives a different reason for its place at the head of the prayer. The first duty of a Christian is to love God fully, so the first thing to desire is God's honor and glory.
The second petition rests on a word that Jesus never defined, apparently because his audience already knew it. George Eldon Ladd traces the Hebrew malkuth to the sense of a reign or rule, with the realm only a secondary meaning.
Hilda C. Graef makes a related point about the Greek basileia, which means both kingdom and kingship. English keeps only the first meaning, and the second adds a hope for a soul that follows God's will.
Challoner finds three kingdoms in the word. They are the eternal kingdom in heaven, Christ's spiritual kingdom in the Church on earth, and the mystical kingdom in the soul. For the last he cites the words of Christ in Luke 17:21, "The kingdom of God is within you".
Christians differ on how that kingdom arrives. The Catholic Church holds that praying the prayer hastens the Second Coming. Some denominations treat the kingdom as a divine gift to be asked for, while others expect the faithful to build it by feeding the hungry and clothing the needy.
William Barclay treats the third petition as a couplet that repeats the second, since doing God's will and living in the kingdom are one and the same. John Ortberg argues that Jesus never taught anyone to pray to be taken out of the world. In his words, the prayer was, "Make up there come down here."
Stephen Cottrell reaches the same conclusion from the Gospel itself. The promise, he says, is not that people go up to heaven, but that heaven comes down to earth.
The Greek word epiousion, in the petition for bread, occurs in the Lord's Prayer and nowhere else in the surviving ancient Greek literature. It appears only in Matthew's and Luke's versions. "Daily" has become its most common English rendering, though the choice is controversial.
St. Jerome translated the word as supersubstantialem in Matthew and as cotidianum, meaning daily, in Luke. The Douay-Rheims Bible follows him with "supersubstantial".
The Catechism of the Catholic Church holds three readings together. In a temporal sense, the word repeats "this day" to build trust without reservation. In a qualitative sense, it means what is necessary for life. Taken literally, as "super-essential", it points to the Bread of Life, the Body of Christ.
Barclay M. Newman's Greek-English dictionary, revised in 2010 by the United Bible Societies, labels the word "of doubtful meaning". Its suggested senses are "for today", "for the coming day" and "necessary for existence".
The next petition shows another split. Matthew 6:12 speaks of debts, while Luke 11:4 speaks of sins. The Aramaic word ḥôbâ can mean either debt or sin, so the original prayer may have been in Aramaic, which would explain the difference.
The Greek word for debts does not require a financial meaning. The accepted reading is that the prayer asks for forgiveness of sin, not of loans from God.
The English tradition then divided over the wording. John Wycliffe's translation of 1395 has "dettis", while William Tyndale's of 1526 has "treaspases". The first Book of Common Prayer, in 1549, used trespasses, and that became the official Anglican form.
The King James Version of 1611, authorized for the Church of England, went back to debts and debtors. Origen of Alexandria, writing in the third century, had already used the Greek word for trespasses.
Today the Church of Scotland, the Presbyterian Church (USA) and the Reformed Church in America follow the debts form. Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans and Methodists are more likely to say trespasses.
Anthony C. Deane, a Canon of Worcester Cathedral, saw meaning in the choice of debts over sins. He took it as a reference to failures to use chances to do good, and linked it to the parable of the sheep and the goats, where the condemned are faulted for what they did not do.
The second half of the petition, "as we forgive", carries more weight than the vocabulary. Matthew 6:14-15 spells out the link, and the Parable of the Unforgiving Servant in Matthew 18:23-35 reinforces it. R. T. France argues that forgiveness cannot be a one-way process and that, like all God's gifts, it must be passed on. In his words, "To ask for forgiveness on any other basis is hypocrisy."
On the 6th of December 2017, Pope Francis told the Italian channel TV2000 that the Italian wording of the sixth petition was a poor translation. He pointed to a French change, but described it in terms of the Spanish phrase no nos dejes caer en la tentación, which he had recited in Argentina before his election.
His objection was to the idea of God as the one who pushes. In his words, "I am the one who falls; it's not him God pushing me into temptation to then see how I have fallen." The Anglican theologian Ian Paul replied that such a proposal was stepping into a theological debate about the nature of evil.
The French change he mentioned came in 2017, giving Et ne nous laisse pas entrer en tentation, or "Do not let us enter into temptation". Other churches reached different conclusions.
In January 2018, after in-depth study, the German Bishops' Conference rejected any rewording of its translation. In November 2018, the Episcopal Conference of Italy adopted a new Messale Romano, rendering the line as non abbandonarci alla tentazione, or "do not abandon us to temptation". Pope Francis approved it, though no similar change was planned for English as of 2019. The Italian-speaking Union of Methodist and Waldensian Churches keeps non esporci alla tentazione, or "do not expose us to temptation".
The argument turns on the Greek word peirasmos, which can mean temptation, testing, trial or experiment. Carl Jung saw God as actually leading people astray. Most Christians instead read the line so that it does not contradict James 1:13-14, which says that God tempts no one.
Some read the petition as an appeal against an unfavorable Last Judgment, citing Revelation 3:10. Others see a plea against hard tests like those of Job, or a request not to be led into temptation by oneself, by others or by Satan.
Tertullian wrote that the Lord must not seem to tempt, as if he were ignorant of anyone's faith or eager to overthrow it. For him the line means "suffer us not to be led into it", and the final clause then conveys us away from the Evil One. Saint Cyprian of Carthage rendered the verse in the same way, and Joseph Smith used the wording "suffer us not to be led into temptation" in an unpublished version of the Bible.
The placement of the line offers another clue. It follows the plea for daily bread, so it is also read as a warning against being caught up in material pleasures. A similar phrase appears in the Gethsemane scenes of Matthew 26:41 and Luke 22:40.
The final petition raises a quieter dispute. In Greek and in Latin, the last word could be neuter, meaning evil in general, or masculine, meaning the evil one. Earlier parts of the Sermon on the Mount use the term for general evil, while later parts of Matthew refer to the devil. Yet no known Aramaic source calls the devil "the evil one".
John Calvin accepted the vagueness and judged that there is little real difference between the two readings, so the question is of no real consequence.
The line "For thine is the kingdom, the power, and the glory" is missing from Luke. It is also missing from the earliest papyrus and parchment manuscripts of Matthew, which represent the Alexandrian text. It does appear in manuscripts of the later Byzantine text.
The Codex Washingtonianus, dated to the early fifth or late fourth century, adds a doxology in the familiar wording. Most scholars do not count it as part of the original text of Matthew, and new translations generally relegate it to a footnote.
The translators of the 1611 King James Bible possessed a Greek manuscript that they assumed was ancient, and so they adopted the ending. English use goes back at least to the First Prayer Book of Edward VI in 1549, which was influenced by William Tyndale's New Testament of 1526.
The earliest additional ending that can be traced is in the Didache, at 8:2. It reads "for yours is the power and the glory forever". C. Clifton Black, who dates the Didache to the early second century, calls it the earliest additional ending we can trace.
Black adds that a longer version may first have appeared in Tatian's Diatessaron, a second-century harmony of the four Gospels. The first three editions of the United Bible Societies text cited the Diatessaron in favor of the doxology in Matthew 6:13, but later editions cite it against. The Apostolic Constitutions then added "the kingdom" to the front of the Didache's formula, producing the familiar form.
The wording has biblical precedents. 1 Chronicles 29:11 praises the greatness, power, glory, victory and majesty of the Lord. Daniel 2:37 hails King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon as the king to whom the God of heaven has given the kingdom, the power, the might and the glory.
Some readers connect the doxology with the final petition. The kingdom, power and glory belong to the Father and not to the antagonist, who is subject to the one to whom Christ will hand over the kingdom, as 1 Corinthians 15:24 says. The prayer then ends, as it began, with a vision of God in heaven.
Churches handle the ending differently. In the Byzantine Rite, a priest who is officiating intones an expanded form that names the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, and those praying answer "Amen". The vast majority of Protestant churches conclude with the doxology, and most Anglican editions of the Book of Common Prayer do so unless the Kyrie eleison comes first.
The Catholic Latin rites have never attached it to the prayer itself, and Jerome's Vulgate does not contain it. In the revised Roman Rite Mass, the priest instead says an embolism that elaborates on the final petition. The people then answer: "For the kingdom, the power, and the glory are yours, now and forever."
In the course of Christianization, the Lord's Prayer was among the first texts translated between many languages, long before the full Bible reached them. English has a version from around AD 650, the Northumbrian translation.
In 1555, Conrad Gessner published Mithridates, de differentiis linguarum, the first collection of the prayer in many languages, with 22 versions. The title honors Mithridates VI of Pontus, who according to Pliny the Elder was an exceptional polyglot.
The idea spread to the next century. Hieronymus Megiserus published a collection in 1603, and Georg Pistorius followed in 1621. Johann Ulrich Kraus issued a collection with more than 100 entries.
In 1680, the Orientalist Andreas Müller published an enlarged collection of 82 versions under the pseudonym Thomas Ludekenius. Three of the versions were in fictional philosophical languages.
B. Mottus re-edited the collection in 1700 under the title Oratio dominica plus centum linguis versionibus aut characteribus reddita et expressa. That edition was comparatively inferior, and John Chamberlayne published a revised one in 1715.
Gottfried Hensel then used the 1715 edition in his Synopsis Universae Philologiae of 1741. He built "geographico-polyglot maps" showing the opening of the prayer in the area where each language was spoken.
The collections kept growing into the 19th century. From 1806 to 1817, Johann Christoph Adelung and Johann Severin Vater published the prayer in what they called "well-nigh five hundred languages and dialects".
In 1818, the Serampore Mission press printed samples of scripture, including the prayer, in 52 Asian languages. Most of those had not appeared in earlier collections.
Rabbi Aron Mendes Chumaceiro finds counterparts for nearly every element of the prayer in the Jewish Bible and the Deuterocanonical books. Isaiah 63:15-16 asks God to look down from heaven and says "for you are our Father". Ezekiel 36:23 speaks of vindicating God's great name, and Proverbs 30:8 asks to be fed with an apportioned bread.
Sirach 28:2 pairs forgiving a neighbor with having one's own sins pardoned, and Psalm 119:133 asks that no iniquity get dominion. Chumaceiro says that "Lead us not into temptation" has no direct counterpart, because it seems to contradict God's righteousness and love. He notes that peirasmos can also mean a test, as when God tested Abraham and Job.
Post-biblical Jewish prayer offers closer echoes. The Kaddish speaks of God's great name being hallowed in the world and of the establishment of his Kingdom. A blessing said by some communities after the evening Shema calls on "Our God in heaven" to hallow his name and establish his kingdom. None of these liturgical prayers can be dated before Jesus.
T. E. Clontz and J. Clontz in The Comprehensive New Testament point to similarities with the Dhammapada, the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Golden Verses and the Egyptian Book of the Dead. Reuben Bredenhof instead finds the background of the petitions and the doxology in the Book of Psalms. Andrew Wommack goes the other way and claims that the prayer "technically speaking... isn't even a true New Testament prayer", because it is not prayed in the name of Jesus.
The prayer has been set to music since the Gregorian chant of the 9th and 10th centuries. Robert Stone set it in 1565, and Orlando di Lasso wrote a Pater Noster in 1573.
Russian composers contributed Otche Nash settings, among them Tchaikovsky in 1878, Rachmaninoff in 1910 and Stravinsky in 1926. In 1935, Albert Hay Malotte wrote the best-known popular setting, and in 2005 Christopher Tin composed "Baba Yetu".
Brian Wilson later arranged the text in elaborate close harmony, loosely based on Malotte's melody. The Beach Boys returned to it several times, most notably as the B-side to their 1964 single "Little Saint Nick".
It also appears on screen and in satire. In the 2002 film Spider-Man, the Green Goblin attacks Aunt May while she is in the middle of saying the prayer. Lawrence Ferlinghetti wrote a parody called "Loud Prayer", and one version was featured in the 1978 film The Last Waltz.
In July 2023, the Filipino drag queen Pura Luka Vega drew controversy by posting a video dancing to a punk rock version of Ama Namin, the Filipino version of the prayer. The video was condemned by several Philippine politicians and the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines.
During the 2020-2021 jubilee of Saint Joseph, Pope Francis signed a decree granting a plenary indulgence to those who contemplate the prayer for at least 30 minutes.
The prayer is still entering public life. On the 9th of May 2026, the Reform UK group at Kent County Council proposed saying it at the start of full council meetings, with support from councillors of Restore Britain. The Full Council debated and approved the proposal on the 22nd of May 2026.
Updated
Common questions
Is the Lord's Prayer found in all four Gospels?
No. It appears in Matthew and Luke but not in Mark, and the two versions differ in length and wording.
Why do some churches say debts and others say trespasses?
Matthew 6:12 uses the word for debts, while Luke 11:4 uses sins. English translators later split, with Wycliffe using debts, Tyndale and the first Book of Common Prayer using trespasses, and the King James Version returning to debts.
Is the closing doxology part of the original prayer?
Most scholars do not think so. It is missing from Luke and from the earliest manuscripts of Matthew, though it appears in later Byzantine manuscripts and in the Didache in a shorter form.
What is unusual about the word translated as daily bread?
The Greek word epiousion appears in the Lord's Prayer and in no other surviving ancient Greek text, so its meaning is uncertain. Daily is the most common English rendering.
Why did Pope Francis question the wording of the sixth petition?
On the 6th of December 2017, he said the traditional Italian wording was a poor translation because it suggests God pushes people into temptation, and he preferred a form such as do not let us fall into temptation.
How did the prayer become a tool for comparing languages?
It was among the first texts translated into many languages. From Conrad Gessner's 1555 collection of 22 versions onward, scholars gathered translations to compare languages, reaching nearly five hundred languages and dialects by the early 19th century.
All sources
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