Deuterocanonical books
The deuterocanonical books faced a vote on the 8th of April 1546. At the Council of Trent, 24 voted in favor, 15 voted against and 16 abstained. An anathema confirmed the result, and the decision came in response to Martin Luther's demands.
The word deuterocanonical means 'of, pertaining to, or constituting a second canon'. Certain books and passages carry this name. The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches count them as Old Testament scripture, as does the Church of the East. Modern Rabbinic Judaism and Protestantism label the same writings Apocrypha.
Why would one set of ancient writings divide the Christian world? Why does the word second carry different weight in different churches? And what do manuscripts, scrolls and early bishops reveal about a debate that ran for centuries?
No two Septuagint codices carry the same set of extra books. The Septuagint is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and the deuterocanonical writings sit inside it. They date from 300 BC to 100 AD, before the Christian church separated from Judaism.
Seven books are accepted by all the ancient churches: Tobit, Judith, Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah, Sirach, Wisdom, and First and Second Maccabees. The Greek additions to Esther and Daniel belong to that shared group as well. The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches include further books in their canons.
Old manuscripts regularly contain these writings. Church Fathers such as Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Irenaeus and Tertullian cite them frequently.
The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament come from the Koine Greek Septuagint. Editions of it include the deuterocanonical books alongside other apocrypha. Together these are called anagignoskomena, meaning 'readable, worthy of reading'.
Hebrews 11:35 is understood by some as pointing to an event recorded in 2 Maccabees. Two verses later, Hebrews 11:37 refers to an oral tradition about a prophet who was sawn in half. Paul and other New Testament authors also refer to or quote the literature of their period.
Greek Psalm manuscripts from the fifth century include three psalms from Luke's birth narrative: the Magnificat, the Benedictus and the Nunc dimittis. The same manuscripts carry the end of the hymn that begins with the Gloria in Excelsis. Beckwith argues that the comprehensive Septuagint codices, which start appearing in the 4th century AD, are all of Christian origin. He adds that nothing with the capacity of Codex Alexandrinus was in use in the first Christian centuries.
Sirach survives in Hebrew in two Dead Sea Scrolls, catalogued as 2QSir and 11QPs_a. Another Hebrew copy turned up at Masada, and the Hebrew text was already known from the Cairo Geniza. Qumran also yielded five fragments of Tobit in Aramaic and one in Hebrew. The Letter of Jeremiah, which is Baruch chapter 6, appeared in Greek in cave 7 as papyrus 7Q2.
The Qumran library held approximately 1,100 manuscripts across eleven caves. Recent scholars suggest it was not entirely produced at Qumran. It may include part of the library of the Jerusalem Temple, hidden for safekeeping when the Romans destroyed the Temple in 70 AD.
Nobody can say for certain when the Hebrew canon was fixed. Some scholars hold that it was established well before the 1st century AD, as early as the 4th century BC. Others point to the Hasmonean dynasty, which ruled from 140 to 40 BC. Albert J. Sundberg writes that Judaism did not exclude the deuterocanonicals and the additional Greek texts from its scriptures.
The Septuagint, the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Peshitta show that different versions of Judaism used different texts. Scholars still debate which comes closest to the Urtext, a theoretical original from which all of them emerged. The Masoretic Text excludes the deuterocanonical books, while the Dead Sea Scrolls contain some of them.
Since the Enlightenment, many wrongly believed the Masoretic Text was the original Hebrew Bible. It was a medieval version created by the Masoretes. Rabbinic Judaism, a newer form of the religion, produced it in part to deter a Christian reading of the Old Testament. The oldest nearly complete Old Testament manuscripts are Codex Vaticanus from the 4th century and Codex Alexandrinus from the 5th. The oldest complete Masoretic manuscript, Codex Leningradensis, dates only from 1008.
Around 94 AD, the Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the Hebrew Bible contained 22 canonical books. The bishop Athanasius later reported the same number, though the two may have meant different contents. Josephus gave no detailed list.
Origen of Alexandria, around 240 AD, also described 22 books, as cited by Eusebius. His list named the Epistle of Jeremiah and the Maccabees. Around 324 AD, Eusebius wrote in his Church History about Bishop Melito of Sardis. In the 2nd century, Melito counted the Wisdom of Solomon as Old Testament. A rival reading holds that the 'Wisdom' placed after Proverbs in Melito's catalogue is only another name for Proverbs.
Cyril of Jerusalem, around 350 AD, listed a single Jeremiah that included Baruch, Lamentations and the Epistle. Athanasius, in 367 AD, included Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah and left out Esther. He said several books were not part of the canon but 'were appointed by the Fathers to be read'. These were Wisdom, Sirach, Judith, Tobit, Esther, the Didache and The Shepherd of Hermas. Epiphanius of Salamis, around 385 AD, wrote that God gave the Jews 27 books. They counted 22, like the letters of their Hebrew alphabet, because ten books were doubled and reckoned as five.
Augustine of Hippo, around 397 AD, wrote out a full canon in On Christian Doctrine. It names Tobias, Judith, the two books of Maccabees, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus. Around 400 AD, the monk Rufinus of Aquileia called such books ecclesiastical rather than canonical. His group held the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, Judith, Tobit and two books of Maccabees. In 405 AD, Pope Innocent I wrote to the bishop of Toulouse. His letter cited the deuterocanonical books as part of the Old Testament canon.
One Latin document from the 7th century, the Muratorian fragment, may copy a Greek original from 170 AD, according to some scholars. It counts the book of Wisdom, 'written by the friends of Solomon in his honour'.
A canon list attached to Canon 59 of the Council of Laodicea, held in 364 AD, was probably added before the mid fifth century. It affirmed Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations and the Epistle of Jeremiah, and it excluded the other deuterocanonical books.
An anonymous scholar wrote the Decretum Gelasianum between 519 and 553. It presents a list approved by the Council of Rome in 382 AD under Pope Damasus I. That list names Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Judith and two books of Maccabees within the Old Testament. The Synod of Hippo in 393 AD recorded a similar list in its Canon XXIV. The Council of Carthage confirmed it on the 28th of August 397, and a second Council of Carthage repeated it in 419. Augustine of Hippo strongly influenced these councils, and he regarded the canon as already closed.
The Eastern Council in Trullo approved the Apostolic Canons in 692 AD. They call the first three books of Maccabees and Wisdom of Sirach venerable and sacred. The Catholic Church does not recognize those canons.
The Middle Ages were less tidy. The Catholic Encyclopedia reports that few medieval writers unequivocally acknowledged these books, though countless Vulgate copies carried them. Later research found the very large 'Atlantic Bibles' of the 11th and 12th centuries, promoted by the reforming papacy, generally left them out. In the 13th century, preaching friars developed the portable Paris Bible. It included the deuterocanonical books but dropped the Epistle to the Laodiceans and the Fourth Book of Esdras.
The Council of Florence in 1442 promulgated a list that named Judith, Esther, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of Maccabees. It taught the inspiration of all the Scriptures but did not formally rule on their canonicity. Trent then stated its list as Florence had set it out. Apart from combining Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah as one book, that list matched the Western synods of the late 4th century.
Even then, the agreement was not complete. Cardinal Seripando was among those who rejected the books at Trent. Around the Reformation, Catholic scholars who rejected them included Cardinal Cajetan, Cardinal Ximénes in his Complutensian Polyglot Bible, St. Antoninus of Florence and Lefèvre d'Étaples. According to the New Catholic Encyclopedia, Trent definitively settled the matter. Erasmus had said only the Spirit of the church knew whether it had accepted these books as equal in authority to the others.
Jerome translated Tobias and Judith in a single day, and only because other Christians asked him. Both appeared in his original Vulgate. Yet in his Vulgate prologues he labeled nearly every deuterocanonical work apocryphal or 'not in the canon'. The exceptions were the Prayer of Manasses and Baruch. Of Baruch he noted only that it was neither read nor held among the Hebrews.
Theologian J. N. D. Kelly describes Jerome as adamant. He regarded the Hebrew original as authoritative, and he knew the difficulty of arguing with Jews from books they spurned. Later Jerome grudgingly conceded that the Church read some of them for edification, but not to support doctrine.
His own practice told a different story. Michael Barber points to Jerome's letter to Eustochium, which quotes Sirach 13:2. Elsewhere Jerome apparently refers to Baruch, the story of Susannah and Wisdom as scripture. Henry Barker says he quoted the Apocrypha with marked respect.
In his prologue to Judith, Jerome pointed to the First Council of Nicaea. He wrote that the council counted the book among the Sacred Scriptures, so he had 'acquiesced to your request'. In his reply to Rufinus in 402 AD, he asked, 'What sin have I committed in following the judgment of the churches?' He insisted he had only repeated Jewish objections to Susanna, the Hymn of the Three Children, and Bel and the Dragon. By this reasoning Jerome accepted that the judgment of the Church would settle the canon, not his own judgment. On Daniel, he wondered why anyone would use the Greek version of Theodotion, whom he regarded as a heretic and judaizer.
The Vulgate also became the touchstone for which parts of books count. Trent required the books to be 'entire with all their parts', as contained in the old Latin Vulgate edition. It also ratified the Vulgate as the official Latin Bible. On the 2nd of June 1927, Pope Pius XI allowed that the Comma Johanneum was open to dispute.
Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah show how the Vulgate handled shifting texts. In the Old Latin Bible they seem to have been folded into Jeremiah, and Latin Fathers of the 4th century cited them from that book. When Jerome translated Jeremiah afresh from the Hebrew, he found it considerably longer than the Greek Septuagint, with chapters in a different order. He steadfastly refused to add Baruch or the Letter. Under the influence of Theodulf of Orleans in the 9th century, both returned to the Vulgate as extra chapters of Jeremiah. By the 13th-century Paris Bibles they formed a single book after Lamentations.
Esdras followed a stranger path. Jerome's prologue to Ezra mentions four Latin books of Ezra. He treated the first two as corrupt versions of the single Hebrew book, and he condemned the third and fourth as apocrypha. From the 9th century, some Vulgate manuscripts split his single Ezra into Ezra and Nehemiah. In the Paris Bibles, Esdras A returned as 3 Esdras and Latin Esdras was added as 4 Esdras. Trent accepted neither. Both were eventually printed in the Apocrypha section of the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate, alongside the Prayer of Manasses.
Sixtus of Siena, a theologian who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism, coined the word deuterocanonical in 1566. He meant texts that the Catholic Church held canonical but whose recognition was considered secondary. He applied it to parts of both Testaments, and even to the Book of Esther in the Hebrew canon.
Other writers narrowed it to Old Testament books recognized by the councils yet absent from the Hebrew canon. After the 16th century, the Eastern Orthodox Church adopted forms of the term for canonical Septuagint books missing from the Hebrew Bible. That is a wider selection than Trent chose. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church applied it to works believed to be of Jewish origin in its Ethiopic Old Testament, a wider selection still.
The word does not mean the same thing everywhere. In Eastern Orthodoxy, a deuterocanonical book belongs to the Old Testament and is read in services, but carries secondary authority. In Roman Catholicism, deutero concerns chronology, because those books were confirmed later, and not authority.
The Eastern Orthodox canon adds 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151 and the Prayer of Manasseh to the Catholic set. It separates Baruch from the Letter of Jeremiah. The Synod of Jerusalem in 1672 accepted the Septuagint books and criticized Cyril for having 'foolishly and ignorantly, or rather maliciously' called them Apocrypha. Other texts appear in an appendix that differs by church. Greek-language Bibles place 4 Maccabees there, while Slavonic and Russian editions place 2 Esdras there. In Russia, St. Philaret of Moscow omitted the Synod's decree from his translation. His Longer Catechism counted only the protocanonical books as Old Testament.
The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Churches often set such books in a separate section titled deuterocanonical. Their Bible also holds the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees and three books of Meqabyan, which are sometimes wrongly confused with the Maccabees. Only the Ethiopian Church holds these canonical.
The term has a New Testament cousin. It is sometimes applied to the antilegomena, or 'disputed writings', that the early Church did not universally accept. These include Hebrews, James, Second Peter, Second John, Third John, Jude and Revelation. The Apocalypse of Peter, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Epistle of Barnabas and the Didache also appear on the list. Jude is on that list, and it is the letter that quotes 1 Enoch 1:9 in verses 14 and 15.
Martin Luther gave the deuterocanonical books a new label. He called them 'Apocrypha, that is, books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read.' Until then they had belonged to the Christian Bible. Assuming the Masoretic text was the original, Luther removed them to match the Jewish canon. Copies of the Luther Bible place them between the Old Testament and New Testament. Luther also wrote introductions to them and occasionally quoted from them to support an argument.
Anabaptists use the Luther Bible. Amish wedding ceremonies include the retelling of the marriage of Tobias and Sarah. Menno Simons, a father of Anabaptism, quoted these texts with the same authority and nearly the same frequency as the Hebrew Bible. Anabaptists hold in high esteem the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 and 2 Maccabees, since they faced persecution themselves.
The Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England allow them to be read for 'example of life and instruction of manners'. They may not be used to establish doctrine. The Book of Common Prayer of 1662 still gave them a place in the cycle of readings. Passages such as the Kyrie Pantokrator and the Benedicite were used regularly in services. Modern Anglican lectionaries draw readings from them, with alternatives from the protocanonical books. The Apocrypha of the original 1611 King James Bible overlaps with the Catholic deuterocanon but adds 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh.
The first Methodist liturgical book, The Sunday Service of the Methodists, uses verses from the deuterocanonical books in its Eucharistic liturgy. The Revised Common Lectionary, used by most mainline Protestants including Methodists and Moravians, lists such readings too, with alternatives.
The Westminster Confession of Faith takes the hardest line. It recognizes only the sixty-six books of the Protestant canon. Chapter 1, Article 3 says the Apocrypha, 'not being of divine inspiration, are no part of the Canon of Scripture'. The Belgic Confession, in Article 6, allows the Church to read them for instruction where they agree with the canonical books. It denies them power to confirm any point of faith.
The word Apocrypha, from Greek for 'hidden away', is not necessarily pejorative. It does imply the writings should stay outside the canon, and it groups them with non-canonical gospels. The Society of Biblical Literature therefore recommends the term deuterocanonical books in academic writing.
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Common questions
What are the deuterocanonical books?
The deuterocanonical books are certain Old Testament books and passages. The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Church of the East traditions treat them as canonical. Modern Rabbinic Judaism and Protestantism regard them as Apocrypha.
Which books are deuterocanonical books accepted by all the ancient churches?
Seven books are accepted by all the ancient churches: Tobit, Judith, Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah, Sirach, Wisdom, and First and Second Maccabees. The Greek additions to Esther and Daniel are also accepted.
Who coined the term deuterocanonical books and when?
The theologian Sixtus of Siena coined the term in 1566. He had converted to Catholicism from Judaism and used it for texts whose canonical recognition was considered secondary.
When did the Council of Trent approve the deuterocanonical books?
The Council of Trent approved the present Catholic canon, including the deuterocanonical books, on the 8th of April 1546. The vote was 24 yea, 15 nay and 16 abstentions, confirmed by an anathema.
Why do Protestants not include the deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament?
Most Protestant churches classify them as Apocrypha. Martin Luther called them books not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures but useful and good to read. He removed them from the Old Testament.
What does deuterocanonical mean in Eastern Orthodoxy compared with Catholicism?
In Eastern Orthodoxy, deuterocanonical means a book is read in services but has secondary authority. In Roman Catholicism, deutero refers to chronology, because those books were confirmed later.
Were deuterocanonical books found among the Dead Sea Scrolls?
Yes. Hebrew copies of Sirach appear in two Dead Sea Scrolls, and Qumran also yielded fragments of Tobit in Aramaic and Hebrew. The Letter of Jeremiah was found in Greek in cave 7.
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