Ivory

• 1. Dentin And The Schreger Pattern

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  Ivory is a hard, white material derived from the tusks and teeth of animals. It consists mainly of dentin, one of the physical structures found in mammalian teeth. This substance contains mineralized collagen fibers that give it unique strength. Elephant tusks are actually incisors, so their composition mirrors other mammal teeth. A measured hardness of 35 on the Vickers scale exceeds that of bone. The flexural modulus reaches 14 GPa while flexural strength hits 378 MPa. These values indicate ivory mechanically outperforms common alternatives like celluloid plastic. An optical feature called the Schreger pattern appears as a checkerboard design on polished samples. This pattern helps identify genuine ivory by dispersing stresses to prevent crack propagation. Separate hardness measurements showed circumferential planes had up to 25% greater hardness than radial planes.

• 2. Indus Valley To Roman Carving

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  The trade of finished goods has origins in the Indus Valley civilization. Finished products seen at Harappan sites include kohl sticks, pins, awls, hooks, toggles, combs, game pieces, dice, and inlay work. Both Greek and Roman civilizations practiced carving to create high-value works of art. They made precious religious objects and decorative boxes for costly items. Ivory often formed the white of eyes in statues. Adomnan of Iona wrote about St Columba giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift. Solinus, a Roman writer from the third century, claimed Celtic peoples in Ireland decorated sword-hilts with teeth of sea beasts. Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction due to Classical world demand. The Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Early references record ivory moving along the Northern Silk Road after explorer Zhang Qian ventured west. Southeast Asian kingdoms included Indian elephant tusks in annual tribute caravans to China.

• 3. Edo Period And Japanese Crafts

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  Ivory carvings became popular in Japan during the 17th-century Edo period. Many netsuke and kiseru featured animals and legendary creatures carved into them. Inro objects had ivory inlaid onto their surfaces. From the mid-1800s, the Meiji government promoted exporting arts and crafts to World's fairs. Elaborate ivory crafts were frequently displayed at these events. Best works were purchased by Western museums, wealthy people, and the Japanese Imperial Family. Buddhist cultures in Southeast Asia harvested ivory from domesticated elephants. It was prized for containers because it kept an airtight seal. Officials used elaborate seals to sign documents and decrees by stamping them. Muslim Malay peoples chose ivory for making handles of kris daggers. In the Philippines, craftsmen crafted faces and hands of Catholic icons using this material. Santero culture prevalent there utilized ivory extensively. Modern examples include okimono, jewelry, flatware handles, and furniture inlays. Warthog tusks and teeth from sperm whales or hippos can also be scrimshawed.

• 4. Connecticut Mills And Piano Keys

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  As trade with Africa expanded during the first part of the 1800s, ivory became readily available. Up to 90 percent of imported ivory was processed in Connecticut. Deep River and Ivoryton became centers of ivory milling in the 1860s due to demand for piano keys. Consumption moved towards mass production of souvenirs and jewelry over the last thirty years. In Japan, increased wealth sparked consumption of solid ivory hanko name seals. These had previously been made of wood before machinery allowed carving in seconds. Massive African elephant decline occurred in the 1980s when populations dropped from 1.3 million to around 600,000 in ten years. During the Art Deco era from 1912 to 1940, European artists used ivory for chryselephantine statues. Ferdinand Preiss and Claire Colinet were two frequent users of ivory in their sculptured artworks. Before plastics were introduced, ivory made cutlery handles, billiard balls, buttons, and Scottish bagpipes. The piano industry abandoned ivory as a key-covering material in the 1970s.

• 5. The 1989 CITES Ban And Poaching

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  In the ten years preceding a decision in 1989 by CITES to ban international trade, African elephant populations declined from 1.3 million to around 600,000. Investigators from the Environmental Investigation Agency found that sales of stockpiles from Singapore and Burundi created a system rewarding smugglers. A 1930 incident required killing approximately 700 elephants to acquire just 40 tons of ivory. In 1975, the Asian elephant was placed on Appendix I of CITES preventing international trade. The African elephant received this status in January 1990. Some southern African countries later had populations downlisted to Appendix II allowing domestic non-ivory trade. Two one-off sales of stockpiles occurred after these changes. In June 2015, more than a ton of confiscated ivory was crushed in New York City's Times Square. The Wildlife Conservation Society pointed out global trade leads to slaughter of up to 35,000 elephants annually. China announced it would phase out legal domestic manufacture and sale of products in May 2015. That same year, China and the U.S. enacted nearly complete bans on import and export.

• 6. Mammoth Tusks And Tagua Nuts

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  Trade in tusks of dead woolly mammoths frozen in tundra has occurred for 300 years. Mammoth ivory remains legal today for making handcrafted knives and similar implements. Scientists estimate 10 million or more mammoths are still buried in Siberia. Fossil walrus ivory from animals dying before 1972 is legal to buy and sell in the United States. Elk ancestors possessed teeth known as elk ivory that protruded outward like tusks. These served protection from predators and asserted dominance during mating seasons. Modern species have larger antlers while their tusks evolved into smaller mouth teeth. Native Americans and First Nations wear them as bracelets, earrings, and chokers for good luck. A hard nut called vegetable ivory or tagua is gaining popularity as a replacement. It is the seed endosperm of the ivory nut palm found in Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia. Its size limits usability but offers a sustainable alternative. Synthetic polymers also exist as substitutes developed since 1800. The billiard industry challenged inventors to create an alternative material. The piano industry abandoned natural ivory as key-covering material decades ago.