Ivory carving

• 1. Material Science And Sources

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  The Venus of Brassempouy stands as the earliest known real likeness of a human face, carved from mammoth ivory roughly 25,000 years ago. This ancient artifact demonstrates that humans have ornamentally carved animal teeth since prehistoric times. Ivory is not exclusively obtained from elephants; any animal tooth or tusk used for carving may be termed ivory. Teeth consist of three elements: outer dental enamel, main body dentine, and inner root osteo-dentine. For carving purposes, the harder enamel often requires removal by grinding first. Hippopotamus tooth enamel on its largest teeth is about as hard as jade. Elephant ivory remains relatively soft and even, making it an ideal material for detailed work. Different species show different colors when examined under ultra-violet light. Eurasian elephant ivory was usually obtained from tusks in India during Roman times. North Africa provided sources before sub-Saharan Africa became the main source from the 18th century onward. Walrus ivory traded south from Norse Greenland to Scandinavia and northern France during early medieval Northern Europe. Mammoth tusks recovered from Siberian permafrost became a large business in the 19th century using convict labor. Sperm whale teeth offered another source while bone carving served as a far cheaper alternative.

• 2. Ancient Civilizations And Trade

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  The Khufu Statuette dates to either the Fourth Dynasty between 2613 BC and 2494 BC or possibly the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty from 664 BC to 525 BC. The MacGregor plaque is more securely dated around 2985 BC and may have decorated a royal sandal. Thin ivory plaques were widely used throughout the ancient world to decorate palace furniture and musical instruments. Tomb of Tutankhamun from the 1330s BC contains many such ivory elements including his carved headrest. Nimrud ivories form a large group recovered from a furniture storeroom at the Assyrian capital dating to the 9th to 6th centuries BC. Pratt Ivories represent another smaller group of furniture attachments from the early second millennium BC found at Acemhöyük in Anatolia. Darius I inscribed that raw material was brought from Nubia in Africa and South Asia for use in his Palace of Susa. Chryselephantine sculptures mixed ivory flesh parts with gilded clothed materials for important cult statues like Athena Parthenos by Phidias. Late Roman pieces mostly survive as plaques from diptychs ending up in church treasuries rather than buried underground. Franks Casket represents an Anglo-Saxon version from the 8th century while Veroli Casket dates to about 1000 AD.

• 3. Medieval Religious Artistry

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  The Barberini Diptych depicts a victorious early 6th century Byzantine emperor on its two panels joined by hinges. Late Roman Consular diptychs were given as presents by civil officers until 541 when they ceased administrative roles. Christian versions adopted images of Christ, Theotokos and saints for individual prayer use. Such ivory panels served as book covers from the 6th century usually centered within metalwork and gem surrounds. Carved ivory covers protected treasure bindings on precious illuminated manuscripts though few jeweled metalwork surrounds survived intact. Harbaville Triptych from the 10th century contains many figurative panels used only for private devotion due to small size. Borradaile Triptych in the British Museum features one central image showing the Crucifixion. Romanos Ivory shows Christ crowning Emperor Romanos and Empress Eudokia with production dated between 944 and 949. Western Europe made polytychs with side panels containing tiers of relief narrative scenes during the Gothic period. Lewis Chessmen represent some of the best known chess pieces carved from ivory. Olifants were horns made from elephant tusk ends often carved over at least part of their surface.

• 4. Islamic Court Craftsmanship

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  The Pyxis of al-Mughira dates to 968 and was likely constructed in workshops of Madinat al-Zahra palace in Cordoba Spain. Islamic art flourished from 750 AD until Baghdad fell to Mongols in 1258 AD making ivory trade more accessible than in the West. Openwork where a panel is cut right through appears very common in both Islamic woodwork and ivory carving. Lions symbolized success power and monarchy while vegetal imagery displayed abundance fertility and femininity. Women of court received these containers for weddings or ceremonies holding jewelry or perfumes inside delicate ivory. The Pyxis of Zamora inscription reads: The sight I offer is of the fairest, the firm breast of a delicate maiden. Beauty has invested me with splendid raiment that makes a display of jewels. I am a receptacle for musk camphor and ambergris. Umayyad caliphate promoted Islam through art architecture and political authority using ivory caskets as symbols of endurance. These objects proclaimed the caliphate's strength through intricate geometric patterns hunting scenes floral designs and Kufic script. The containers embodied intimate environments between object owner and contents while poetic phrases activated visual characteristics.

• 5. Asian Aesthetics And Techniques

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  The ivory Pompeii Lakshmi carved in India was found in ruins after its destruction in 79 AD. Begram ivories represent large ancient finds of plaques and furniture fittings from Kushan Empire palace dated to 1st or 2nd century BC. Travancore produced palquines thrones designed for royal family including one presented at Great London Exhibition in 1851. Murshidabad carvers called solid tusk end Nakshidant middle portion Khondidant thick hollow end Galhardant preferring solid ends for work. Five legged arm chair displayed at Victoria Memorial Kolkata features tiger claw legs and open mouthed tiger head bases. Chinese puzzle balls contain series of smaller freely rotating balls inside larger ones demonstrating immense patience. Qing dynasty suited growing taste for intricate carving used for brush holders boxes handles and Canton house models. Japanese netsuke became popular around Edo period in 17th century when kimono had no pockets requiring sagemono containers. Ishikawa Komei and Asahi Gyokuzan gained particularly high reputation during Meiji Restoration mid-1800s modernization. Samurai class abolition ended demand for traditional items forcing craftsmen to seek new markets through World's fairs.

• 6. African Royal Traditions

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  Benin ivory mask dates to 16th century and represents art produced by Kingdom of Benin court. Ivory tusks came from bush elephant with larger heavier tusks or forest elephant with smaller straighter tusks. African ivory often came in larger pieces with more sought after cream color easier to carve than Asian varieties. Kongo ivories formed one West African type while Sapi-Portuguese Ivory Spoon came from further along coast. Set of saltcellars included Portuguese Figures intended for export via Portuguese traders. Ivory objects such as carved masks salt cellars oliphants served as gifts religious ceremonies for hundreds of years. Trading became heavily restricted over recent decades especially following international CITES agreement. United States trade based on age remains controversial with laws varying by state. Obama administration orchestrated destruction of six tons of ivory in November 2013 to undermine market. U.S. Interior Department announced ban on elephant ivory trade within United States by February 2014 prohibiting imports exports resales. Donald Trump lifted ban on ivory imports from Zimbabwe implemented by Barack Obama on the 16th of November 2017.