Innovation
Thomas Edison held 1,093 U.S. patents in his name during the late 1870s while working with a phonograph. This prolific output illustrates the practical implementation of ideas that result in new goods or services. ISO TC 279 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity, realizing or redistributing value" in standard ISO 56000:2020. The distinction between invention and innovation lies in this practical application to generate meaningful impact. Not all innovations require a completely new invention to succeed. Peter Drucker emphasized that innovation involves the implementation of creative ideas within an economic setting rather than just their creation. Amabile and Pratt distinguished creativity as producing novel ideas from innovation as successfully implementing those ideas inside an organization.
The Greek philosopher Xenophon published the first full-length discussion about innovation between 430 BCE and 355 BCE. He connected the concept to political action using the word kainotomia which appeared earlier in plays by Aristophanes. Plato discussed innovation in his Laws dialogue but remained skeptical toward cultural changes like dancing and art. Aristotle believed all possible forms of organization had already been discovered according to Politics II. Before the fourth century in Rome, words novitas and res nova carried negative judgments on innovators. The Vulgate Bible used the term innovo in spiritual contexts during the late fourth century CE. Machiavelli portrayed innovation positively in The Prince written in 1513 as a strategy for princes facing corruption. From the 1400s through the 1600s the concept served as a synonym for rebellion or heresy. Goldwin Smith viewed socialism as an attack on money and banks during the 1800s.
Economist Robert Solow demonstrated economic growth components in 1957 including productivity alongside production factors. Joseph Schumpeter described creative destruction as the essential fact about capitalism throughout his career from 1883 to 1950. Clayton Christensen distinguished sustaining innovations that improve existing products from disruptive ones creating entirely new markets. A transistor radio exemplifies disruptive innovation while flat screen televisions represent sustaining improvements. Marco Iansiti and Karim R. Lakhani defined foundational technology as having potential to create global systems over time. TCP/IP protocol introduced in 1972 gained widespread adoption only in the mid-1990s with the World Wide Web. Henderson and Clark divided innovation into four types: radical, incremental, architectural, and modular approaches. Radical innovation establishes new dominant designs while incremental refinement extends established concepts.
Utterback outlined three phases of innovation in 1971 covering idea generation problem solving and implementation. Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley Semiconductor's eight former employees starting in 1957. Fairchild Semiconductor developed into a formidable presence before its founders launched independent firms based on unique ideas. Martin O'Malley pushed Baltimore to use CitiStat which saved the city $13.2 million in its first year. David O'Sullivan identified five causes of failure within organizations including poor goal definition and communication issues. The Kline chain-linked model emphasizes market needs as drivers through complex feedback loops between marketing design manufacturing and research departments. Thomas Edison searched through thousands of filament designs before settling on carbonized bamboo for his incandescent light bulb. Procter & Gamble uses computer-simulated products to guide packaging decisions while Capital One drives credit card offers using A/B testing techniques.
Edison et al found 232 innovation metrics across literature reviews categorizing them along five dimensions. Sweden scored 82.2 points in the Innovation Capacity Index published during 2009, 2010 while Finland reached 77.8. Jonathan Huebner argued human technological innovation peaked in 1873 per U.S. patents and world breakthroughs data. The Bloomberg Innovation Index ranked countries with scores like 90.49 for the top position in 2021. Switzerland appeared number one in the Global Innovation Index 2016 despite South Korea Japan and China missing the top ten. The OECD Oslo Manual suggests standard guidelines measuring technological product and process innovation since 1992. The EU Lisbon Strategy set a goal that average expenditure on R&D should reach 3% of GDP. Richard Florida developed the Creative Class concept as another framework for evaluating regional innovation capacity.
Business incubators were first introduced in 1959 subsequently nurtured by governments around the world to stimulate economic growth. Charles Herrold created the world's first radio broadcasting station at 50 W. San Fernando Street in downtown San Jose in 1909. The municipality of Medellín Colombia created Ruta N in 2009 to transform the city into a knowledge center. Germany's Federal Ministry of Education and Research supports national innovation programs alongside Japan's MEXT agency. Russia launched the Medvedev modernisation programme aiming to create a diversified economy based on high technology. Landgate became the first Western Australian government agency to establish its own Innovation Program. The U.S. Economic Development Administration continues its Regional Innovation Clusters initiative targeting precision manufacturing information technology and sustainable energy sectors. Public procurement activities serve as means to achieve innovation without sacrificing value for money according to UK Government reports from 2003 and 2009.
The prevailing hegemonic view defines innovation under capital with purposes centered on profit maximization and capital valorisation. Planned obsolescence including lack of repairability by design exemplifies this capitalist mode of production today. Mario Giampietro and Silvio Funtowicz questioned whether innovative solutions could solve the climate crisis in their 2020 analysis. Robra et al proposed counter-hegemonic views revising capital accumulation as the primary goal of innovation. This alternative lens focuses on creating user-value satisfying societal needs through open access to knowledge. Eco-sufficiency defines progress not by efficiency but by staying within planetary boundaries challenging beliefs in limitless growth. Commons-based peer production offers an alternative vision prioritizing conviviality over relentless competition. The table comparing these perspectives shows fundamental differences in purpose underpinning common senses and approaches to environmental sustainability.
Common questions
What is the definition of innovation according to ISO 56000:2020?
ISO TC 279 defines innovation as a new or changed entity realizing or redistributing value in standard ISO 56000:2020. This definition emphasizes practical application rather than just creation.
When did Thomas Edison hold his patents and what was he working on during that time?
Thomas Edison held 1,093 U.S. patents in his name during the late 1870s while working with a phonograph. His prolific output illustrates the practical implementation of ideas resulting in new goods or services.
Who published the first full-length discussion about innovation between 430 BCE and 355 BCE?
The Greek philosopher Xenophon published the first full-length discussion about innovation between 430 BCE and 355 BCE. He connected the concept to political action using the word kainotomia which appeared earlier in plays by Aristophanes.
Which economist demonstrated economic growth components in 1957 including productivity alongside production factors?
Economist Robert Solow demonstrated economic growth components in 1957 including productivity alongside production factors. Joseph Schumpeter described creative destruction as the essential fact about capitalism throughout his career from 1883 to 1950.
What year did Silicon Valley begin as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley Semiconductor's eight former employees starting in 1957?
Silicon Valley began as 65 new enterprises born out of Shockley Semiconductor's eight former employees starting in 1957. Fairchild Semiconductor developed into a formidable presence before its founders launched independent firms based on unique ideas.