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Second Sino-Japanese War | HearLore
Second Sino-Japanese War
On the night of the 7th of July 1937, a single missing Japanese soldier triggered a firestorm that would consume millions of lives. Private Shimura Kikujiro vanished during a night exercise near the Marco Polo Bridge, a strategic crossing point just outside Beijing. The Japanese China Garrison Army demanded entry into the walled city of Wanping to search for him, but the Chinese garrison of the 29th Army refused. In the confusion of the dark, a shot was fired, and the question of who fired first remains a subject of historical debate to this day. This localized skirmish did not remain local. Within days, the Konoe cabinet in Tokyo authorized the deployment of three infantry divisions from mainland Japan, and by the 20th of July, total Japanese military strength in the Beijing-Tianjin area exceeded 180,000 personnel. The ceasefire negotiated on the 11th of July failed to reach the central military commands of either nation, and the diplomatic efforts to contain the conflict collapsed under the weight of escalating tensions. Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Republic of China, delivered the Lushan Statement on the 17th of July, framing the incident as a struggle for the nation's survival and outlining demands for peace that included allowing the 29th Army to move freely in the area. The war had begun, and unlike previous conflicts, there was no turning back.
The Fall of Nanjing
The capture of Nanjing in December 1937 marked the beginning of one of the darkest chapters in modern history. Following the brutal Battle of Shanghai, where over 300,000 Japanese troops and numerous naval vessels were committed to capture the city, the Imperial Japanese Army advanced on the KMT capital. On the 13th of December 1937, Japanese forces entered the city and committed massive war atrocities that would become known as the Nanjing Massacre. Over the next several weeks, Japanese troops perpetrated numerous mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes. The army looted and burned the surrounding towns and the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings. The number of Chinese killed in the massacre has been subject to much debate, with estimates ranging from 100,000 to more than 300,000. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East estimated at least 200,000 murders and 20,000 rapes. The Japanese atrocities in Nanjing, especially following the Chinese defense of Shanghai, increased international goodwill for the Chinese people and the Chinese government. The Nationalist government re-established itself in Chongqing, which became the wartime seat of government until 1945. Following the capture of Nanjing, Chiang Kai-shek was now willing to accept Japan's initial proposal, but the Japanese government hardened its terms drastically with the inclusion of the recognition of Manchukuo. Peace negotiations broke down and Chiang Kai-shek failed to respond by the 12th of January 1938 deadline. Prime Minister Konoe issued the First Konoe Statement on the 16th of January 1938, declaring: We will no longer deal with the government of Chiang Kai-shek. This effectively severed relations and committed Japan to a total war of regime change.
What triggered the Second Sino-Japanese War on the 7th of July 1937?
The Second Sino-Japanese War began after Private Shimura Kikujiro of the Japanese China Garrison Army vanished during a night exercise near the Marco Polo Bridge outside Beijing. The Japanese demanded entry into the walled city of Wanping to search for him, but the Chinese garrison of the 29th Army refused, leading to a shot being fired and the subsequent escalation of the conflict.
When did the Japanese forces capture Nanjing and what atrocities occurred?
Japanese forces entered the city of Nanjing on the 13th of December 1937 and committed massive war atrocities known as the Nanjing Massacre. Over the following weeks, troops perpetrated mass executions and tens of thousands of rapes while looting and burning the city, destroying more than a third of the buildings.
How did the Chinese Communist Party conduct guerrilla warfare during the Second Sino-Japanese War?
The Chinese Communist Party adopted a strategy of guerrilla warfare to preserve strength after retreating on the Long March to Yan'an. The Eighth Route Army carried out operations and established bases in the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region while the Japanese military attempted to destroy the economy through systematic violence and blockade tactics.
What was the Three Alls Policy implemented by Japan from 1941 to 1945?
The Three Alls Policy meant Kill all, loot all, and burn all, and was implemented by the Japanese military to decrease the Communists' human and material resources. This policy involved massacres, slavery, deportations, mass rape, and the use of poison gas and forced starvation against the rural countryside.
How did the United States and Soviet Union provide aid to China during the Second Sino-Japanese War?
The United States increased aid to China under the Lend-Lease Act and provided fighter aircraft through the Flying Tigers commanded by Claire Lee Chennault. The Soviet Union provided the greatest material help from 1937 into 1941 through the Sino-Soviet Treaty and Operation Zet, which included Soviet volunteer combat aviators.
When did the Second Sino-Japanese War officially end and what were the consequences?
Japan formally surrendered on the 2nd of September 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Manchuria. The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people and led to China becoming one of the Big Four Allied powers and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.
While the Nationalist government retreated to the interior, a different kind of war was being waged by the Chinese Communist Party. After the defeat of the Chinese Soviet Republic by the Nationalists, the Communists had retreated on the Long March to Yan'an, losing around 90% of their men in the process. In the face of Japanese invasion, the Communists adopted a strategy of guerrilla warfare, avoiding conventional attacks and defense to preserve their strength. The Eighth Route Army carried out guerilla operations and established military and political bases in the Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei Border Region. The Japanese military, unable to defeat the Communists through conventional means, altered its tactics to build more roads, blockade rivers and roads, and use systematic violence on civilians in the Border Region to destroy its economy. The Japanese military mandated confiscation of the Eighth Route Army's goods and used this directive as a pretext to confiscate goods, including engaging in grave robbery in the Border Region. Despite the steady territorial gains of Japan in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled collaborators and attacked by CCP forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941. Afterward, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CCP's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai-shek.
The Three Alls Policy
From 1941 to 1942, Japan concentrated most of its forces in China in an effort to defeat the CCP bases behind Japan's lines. Aiming to decrease the Communists' human and material resources, the Japanese military implemented the Three Alls Policy, which meant Kill all, loot all, burn all. In accordance with the policy, Japanese forces conducted massacres, slavery, deportations and mass rape across North and Central China. They destroyed numerous villages, deployed poison gas, and weaponized forced starvation against the rural countryside. These measures killed millions of Chinese civilians, but had a marginal effect on guerrilla activity. These destructive campaigns would persist until March of 1945. The policy was a response to the difficulty Japan faced in administering and garrisoning the seized territories. The Japanese military built more roads to quicken movement between strongpoints and cities, blockaded rivers and roads in an effort to disrupt Communists supply, sought to expand militia from its puppet regime to conserve manpower, and use systematic violence on civilians in the Border Region in an effort to destroy its economy. The Japanese military mandated confiscation of the Eighth Route Army's goods and used this directive as a pretext to confiscate goods, including engaging in grave robbery in the Border Region. The policy was a desperate attempt to break the will of the Chinese people and the resistance forces, but it only served to deepen the hatred and resolve of the Chinese people against the invaders.
The Hump and the Tigers
As the war dragged on, China found itself increasingly isolated from the outside world. The sea routes to China and the Yunnan-Vietnam Railway had been closed since 1940, and the Burma Road was cut off in 1942. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942 and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over The Hump, a dangerous air route over the Himalayas. The United States increased its aid to China under the Lend-Lease Act, becoming its main financial and military supporter. Claire Lee Chennault commanded the 1st American Volunteer Group, nicknamed the Flying Tigers, with American pilots flying American warplanes which were painted with the Chinese flag to attack the Japanese. He headed both the volunteer group and the uniformed U.S. Army Air Forces units that replaced it in 1942. The Flying Tigers became a symbol of American support for China, and their success in the air helped to turn the tide of the war in the Pacific. The United States also provided fighter aircraft for the Nationalist Chinese Air Force and artillery and armour for the Chinese Army through the Sino-Soviet Treaty. The Soviet Union provided the greatest material help for China from 1937 into 1941, with fighter aircraft for the Nationalist Chinese Air Force and artillery and armour for the Chinese Army through the Sino-Soviet Treaty. Operation Zet also provided for a group of Soviet volunteer combat aviators to join the Chinese Air Force in the fight against the Japanese occupation from late 1937 through 1939. The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May to September 1939, leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again. In April 1941, Soviet aid to China ended with the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to focus on the war in Europe, leaving China to face the Japanese alone.
The Great Betrayal
The relationship between the Nationalists and the Communists was fraught with tension and betrayal. The Xi'an Incident on the 12th of December 1936, where Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek in Xi'an, had forced an end to KMT-CCP conflict. Joseph Stalin, who viewed Chiang Kai-Shek as a crucial asset to the defense of his eastern borders, forced the CCP to negotiate with the KMT. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary ceasefire with the Communists. On the 24th of December, the two parties verbally agreed to a United Front against Japan. The beleaguered Communists, who agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army under the nominal control of the NRA. In addition, Shaan-Gan-Ning and Shanxi-Chahar-Hebei border regions were created, under the control of the CCP. In Shaan-Gan-Ning, Communists in the Shaan-Gan-Ning Base Area fostered opium production, taxed it, and engaged in its trade, including selling to Japanese-occupied and KMT-controlled provinces. The Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan. The formation of a united front fostered the legitimacy of the CCP, but the level of support the central government would provide to the communists was not settled. When compromise with the CCP failed to incentivize the Soviet Union to engage in an open conflict against Japan, the KMT withheld further support for the Communists. To strengthen their legitimacy, Communist forces actively engaged the Japanese early on. These operations weakened Japanese forces in Shanxi and other areas in the North. Mao Zedong was distrustful of Chiang Kai-shek, however, and shifted strategy to guerrilla warfare in order to preserve the CCP's military strength. Despite Japan's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled collaborators and attacked by CCP forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin-wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941. Afterward, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CCP's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai-shek.
The End of the War
In 1944, Japan launched Operation Ichi-Go, the largest military campaign of the Second Sino-Japanese War. The campaign mobilized 500,000 Japanese troops, 100,000 horses, 1,500 artillery pieces, and 800 tanks. Japanese forces advanced along Chinese railway lines and targeted American airfields. Chinese armies were poorly supplied and unprepared, and consequently lost 300,000 casualties along with large swathes of territory. In late November 1944, the Japanese advance slowed approximately 300 miles from Chongqing as it experienced shortages of trained soldiers and materiel. Although Operation Ichi-Go achieved its goals of seizing United States air bases and establishing a potential railway corridor from Manchukuo to Hanoi, it did so too late to impact the result of the broader war. American bombers in Chengdu were moved to the Mariana Islands where, along with bombers from bases in Saipan and Tinian, they could still bomb the Japanese home islands. After Operation Ichi-Go, Chiang Kai-shek started a plan to withdraw Chinese troops from the Burma theatre against Japan in Southeast Asia for a counter offensive called White Tower and Iceman against Japanese soldiers in China in 1945. The poor performance of Chiang Kai-shek's forces in opposing the Japanese advance during Operation Ichi-Go became widely viewed as demonstrating Chiang's incompetence. It irreparably damaged the Roosevelt administration's view of Chiang and the KMT. The campaign further weakened the Nationalist economy and government revenues. Because of the Nationalists' increasing inability to fund the military, Nationalist authorities overlooked military corruption and smuggling. The Nationalist army increasingly turned to raiding villages to press-gang peasants into service and force marching them to assigned units. Approximately 10% of these peasants died before reaching their units. By the end of 1944, Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li-jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong-Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China's vital supply artery. In the spring of 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action. Japan formally surrendered on the 2nd of September 1945, following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Soviet declaration of war and subsequent invasions of Manchukuo and Korea. The war resulted in the deaths of around 20 million people, mostly Chinese civilians. China was recognized as one of the Big Four Allied powers in World War II and one of the Four Policemen, which formed the foundation of the United Nations. It regained Taiwan and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The Chinese Civil War resumed in 1946, ending with a communist victory and the Proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, while the government of the Republic of China relocated on Taiwan.