Dutch East Indies

• 1. Origins And Expansion

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  In 1595, the first Dutch expedition set sail to reach the East Indies directly from Asia. Only one third of the original crew returned to Holland after many skirmishes and hardships. The Dutch government amalgamated competing companies into the United East India Company in March 1602. This company received a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make treaties across Asia. A capital was established in Batavia, now Jakarta, which became the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. By the end of the 18th century, smuggling, corruption, and mismanagement led to bankruptcy for the company. The company was formally dissolved in 1800, and its colonial possessions were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the Dutch East Indies. From about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer islands. Motivations included protection of areas already held, intervention by ambitious officials, and establishing claims to prevent other Western powers from intervening. The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War between 1821 and 1838. The Java War ended significant Javanese resistance between 1825 and 1830. The Banjarmasin War in southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan between 1859 and 1863. An 1849 intervention brought northern Bali under Dutch control after failed expeditions in 1846 and 1848. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh War, where a Dutch invasion in 1873 met indigenous guerrilla resistance until an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Direct colonial rule was extended throughout the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910. Control was taken from remaining independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905, 06, and the island of Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908. Other rulers including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak in Kalimantan, and Palembang in Sumatra requested Dutch protection from independent neighbors. The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea) was brought under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory of the Republic of Indonesia.

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• 2. Exploitation Systems

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  Due to high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in the 19th century, the Cultivation System was implemented in 1830. Under this system, Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for cultivation of cash crops like indigo, coffee, and sugar. Considerable profits were made; net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue. At its height, over 1 million farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel. Extreme incentive for profit resulted in widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to use more than 20% of their farmland or the most fertile land for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. Mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period. According to one study, mortality rate in Java would have been 10, 20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation system had not been abolished. Another source of profit were so-called coolies, low-wage indentured laborers. After abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, economy shifted to private companies such as the Deli Company founded on Sumatra in 1869. Large-scale plantations grew cash crops. Javanese, Chinese, Malay, Batak, and Indian people were shipped to plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform harsh labor. Over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during the late 19th and early 20th century. Precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard to estimate but has been estimated to be as high as 25% in certain places. Possible death toll reached many tens of thousands. In practice, circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced labor by colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances of 1880 allowed plantation owners to serve as judge, jury, and executioner. Widespread atrocities included physical punishment like whippings or beatings after which open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion, and suspending coolies by their toes or thumbs until they broke. Medical care for coolies was scarce and often aimed at healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively. Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common.

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• 3. Social Hierarchy And Demographics

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  In 1898, population of Java numbered 28 million with another 7 million on Indonesia's outer islands. By 1930, there were more than 240,000 people with European legal status in the colony, making up less than 0.5% of total population. Almost 75% of these Europeans were native Eurasians known as Indo-Europeans. In 1930 census, indigenous islanders (Pribumi) numbered 59,138,067, representing 97.4% of population. Chinese numbered 1,233,214, representing 2.0%. Dutch people and Eurasians numbered 240,417, representing 0.4%. Other foreign orientals numbered 115,535, representing 0.2%. Total population reached 60,727,233. The Dutch colonialists formed a privileged upper social class of soldiers, administrators, managers, teachers, and pioneers. They lived together with natives but at top of rigid social and racial caste system. The Dutch East Indies had two legal classes of citizens: European and indigenous. A third class, Foreign Easterners, was added in 1920. During earlier stages of colonization, female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch colonials. This practice was cut short after 1860 with abolition of slavery. In late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia, leading to shortage of available women since most immigrants were men. Dutch then bought the Njai, indigenous women who officially served as maids but were often also used as concubines. While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed few rights. They could be bought and sold together with house they worked in as so-called Indigenous Furniture. Njai were not allowed custody of children they had with their Dutch masters. When fired, their children would be taken away. By 1910s number of Njai decreased though prostitution became more prevalent. Practice had not died out by time Empire of Japan invaded and occupied Indies. During occupation, Njai and mixed-race children were forcefully separated from European men put into internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed independent Indonesia, Njai forced to choose between going with partners to Europe or staying in Indonesia.

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• 4. Military History And Warfare

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  Royal Netherlands East Indies Army KNIL and its air arm Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force ML-KNIL established in 1814 and 1915 respectively. Naval forces of Royal Netherlands Navy RNLN such as Dutch East Indies Squadron based in Surabaya supplemented by colonial Government Navy and Indies Military Navy. KNIL was not part of Royal Netherlands Army but separate military arm commanded by governor-general and funded by colonial budget. KNIL not allowed to recruit Dutch conscripts and had nature of Foreign Legion recruiting not only Dutch volunteers but many other European nationalities especially German, Belgian and Swiss mercenaries. While most officers were Europeans, majority of soldiers were indigenous Indonesians largest contingent Javanese and Sundanese. By 1850 RNLN had 500 indigenous sailors and this number continued increase over following decades. Policy before 1870s took full charge strategic points work out treaties local leaders elsewhere so they would remain control cooperate. Policy failed Aceh northern Sumatra where Sultan tolerated pirates raid commerce Strait Malacca. Britain protector Aceh granted Dutch request conduct anti-piracy campaign. Campaign quickly drove out Sultan across Aceh numerous local Muslim leaders mobilized fought Dutch four decades expensive guerrilla war high levels atrocities both sides. Colonial military authorities tried forestall war population means strategy awe. When guerrilla war did take place Dutch used either slow violent occupation or campaign destruction. By 1900 archipelago considered pacified KNIL mainly involved military police tasks. Nature KNIL changed 1917 when colonial government introduced obligatory military service all male conscripts European legal class. In 1922 supplemental legal enactment created Home guard for European conscripts older than 32. Petitions Indonesian nationalists establish military service indigenous people rejected. July 1941 Volksraad passed law creating native militia 18,000 by majority 43 to 4 only moderate Great Indonesia Party objecting. After declaration war Japan over 100,000 natives volunteered. KNIL hastily inadequately attempted transform them modern military force protect Dutch East Indies Imperial Japanese invasion. Eve Japanese invasion December 1941 Dutch regular troops East Indies comprised about 1,000 officers and 34,000 men 28,000 indigenous. During Dutch East Indies campaign 1941, 42 KNIL Allied forces quickly defeated. All European soldiers practice included able bodied Indo-European males interned Japanese POWs. Twenty-five percent POWs survived internment. Pacific War around 500 Indonesian sailors died serving RNLN. Following World War II reconstituted KNIL joined Dutch Army troops re-establish colonial law order. Despite two successful military campaigns 1947 and 1948, 1949 Dutch efforts re-establish colony failed Netherlands recognized Indonesian sovereignty December 1949. KNIL disbanded the 26th of July 1950 indigenous personnel given option demobilizing joining Indonesian military. At time disbandment KNIL numbered 65,000 26,000 incorporated new Indonesian Army remainder either demobilized transferred Netherlands Army.

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• 5. Japanese Occupation And Collapse

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  The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on the 14th of May 1940. Royal family fled exile Britain. Germany Japan Axis allies. On the 27th of September 1940 Germany Hungary Italy Japan signed treaty outlining spheres influence. Dutch East Indies fell into Japan sphere. On the 10th of January 1942 during Dutch East Indies Campaign Japanese forces invaded Dutch East Indies part Pacific War. Rubber plantations oil fields Dutch East Indies considered crucial Japanese war effort. Allied forces quickly overwhelmed Japanese moved south late 1941 search Dutch oil. On the 8th of March 1942 Royal Dutch East Indies Army surrendered Java. Fuelled Japanese Light Asia war propaganda Indonesian National Awakening vast majority indigenous Dutch East Indies population first welcomed Japanese liberators colonial Dutch empire sentiment quickly changed occupation turned far more oppressive ruinous Dutch colonial government. Japanese occupation World War II brought fall colonial state Indonesia. Japanese removed much Dutch government structure replaced own regime. Though top positions held Japanese internment all Dutch citizens meant Indonesians filled many leadership administrative positions. Contrast Dutch repression Indonesian nationalism Japanese allowed indigenous leaders forge links masses trained armed younger generations. According UN report four million people died Indonesia result Japanese occupation. Following Japanese surrender August 1945 nationalist leaders Sukarno Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. Four-and-a-half-year struggle followed Dutch tried re-establish colony. Although Dutch forces re-occupied most Indonesia territory guerrilla struggle ensued majority Indonesians ultimately international opinion favored Indonesian independence. Netherlands committed war crimes summary arbitrary killings Indonesian villagers farmers torture Indonesian prisoners execution prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented mass murder 364 Indonesians village Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein Karin van Coevorden documented later execution hundreds men village Rawagede.

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• 6. Independence Struggle And Transfer

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  After political situation Indonesia devolved deadlock new Dutch government led Louis Beel Catholic People's Party formed Commissie-Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië Commission General Dutch Indies the 14th of September 1946. Commission-General consisted Willem Schermerhorn Dutch Prime Minister 1845 to 1846 F De Boer Liberal politician Max van Poll Catholic Party politician Hubertus van Mook Lieutenant-Governor General ex officio. Commission achieved cease-fire the 14th of October month arrival Batavia draft agreement the 15th of November negotiators Republik Sutan Sjahrir Prime Minister Amir Sjarifuddin Defense Minister Johannes Leimena Junior Minister Health chairman Indonesian Christian Party. So-called Linggadjati Agreement first elucidated Dutch Minister Foreign Affairs Jan Jonkman the 10th of December form accepted Dutch Parliament the 20th of December 1946. Formally signed parties the 25th of March 1947 Djakarta Indonesian side rejecting elucidation. After high point relations countries situation rapidly deteriorated. Both sides more extreme parties got upper hand. Dutch unilaterally instituted interim government colony federal basis representation parts colony not represented Republik unacceptable Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed compromise rejected Dutch. Sjahrir resigned replaced Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared state emergency areas hands Republik assumed charge negotiations. Situation deteriorated further Dutch resorted military intervention Operation Product first politionele actie. Commission General dissolved the 15th of November 1947 Schermerhorn Van Poll resigned Politionele Actie did not achieve goals international pressure forced Dutch government accept cease-fire Renville Agreement the 17th of January 1948. Agreement however lead solution. Provocative actions both sides led tense military situation Dutch second time resorted military intervention second politionele actie Operation Kraai December 1948. Militarily successful Dutch managed capture Sukarno again international political pressure forced Dutch back down party Roem, Van Roijen Agreement the 7th of May 1949. Dutch, Indonesian Round Table Conference started the 22nd of August 1949 led agreement transfer sovereignty Republic United States Indonesia. December 1949 Netherlands formally recognized Indonesian sovereignty exception Dutch New Guinea Western New Guinea. Sukarno government campaigned Indonesian control territory pressure United States Netherlands agreed New York Agreement ceded territory Indonesian administration May 1963. In 2013 Netherlands government apologized violence used against Indonesian people apology repeated King Willem-Alexander state visit 2020. To day colonial war commonly referred police actions Netherlands.

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• 7. Education And National Awakening

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  Dutch school system extended Indonesians most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children Indonesian upper class. Second tier schooling based ethnicity separate schools Indonesians Arabs Chinese taught Dutch Dutch curriculum. Ordinary Indonesians educated Malay Roman alphabet link schools preparing bright Indonesian students entry Dutch-language schools. Vocational schools programs set Indies government train indigenous Indonesians specific roles colonial economy. Chinese Arabs officially termed foreign orientals could not enrol vocational schools primary schools. Graduates Dutch schools opened own schools modelled Dutch school system Christian missionaries Theosophical Societies Indonesian cultural associations. Proliferation schools further boosted new Muslim schools Western mould offered secular subjects. According 1930 census 6% Indonesians literate figure recognised only graduates Western schools those read write language Roman alphabet. Did not include graduates non-Western schools those write Arabic Malay Dutch write non-Roman alphabets Batak Javanese Chinese Arabic. Some higher education institutions established. 1898 Dutch East Indies government established school train medical doctors named School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen STOVIA. Many STOVIA graduates later played important roles Indonesia national movement toward independence developing medical education Indonesia Dr Wahidin Soedirohoesodo established Budi Utomo political society. De Technische Hogeschool te Bandung established 1920 Dutch colonial administration meet needs technical resources colony. One Technische Hogeschool graduate Sukarno lead Indonesian National Revolution. 1924 colonial government decided open new tertiary-level educational facility Rechts Hogeschool RHS train civilian officers servants. 1927 STOVIA status changed full tertiary-level institution name changed Geneeskundige Hogeschool GHS. GHS occupied same main building used teaching hospital current Faculty Medicine University Indonesia. Old links Netherlands Indonesia still clearly visible technological areas irrigation design. To day ideas Dutch colonial irrigation engineers continue exert strong influence Indonesian design practices. Two highest-internationally ranking universities Indonesia University Indonesia established 1898 Bandung Institute Technology established 1920 founded during colonial era. Education reforms modest political reform resulted small elite highly educated indigenous Indonesians promoted idea independent unified Indonesia bring together disparate indigenous groups Dutch East Indies. Period termed Indonesian National Revival first half 20th century saw nationalist movement develop strongly face Dutch oppression.

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• 8. Cultural Legacy And Literature

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  Across archipelago hundreds native languages used Malay Portuguese Creole existing languages trade adopted. Prior 1870 when Dutch colonial influence largely restricted Java Malay used government schools training programs graduates communicate groups regions immigrated Java. Colonial government sought standardise Malay based version Riau Malacca dictionaries commissioned governmental communication schools indigenous peoples. Early 20th century Indonesia independence leaders adopted form Malay Riau called Indonesian. Latter half 19th century rest archipelago hundreds language groups used brought Dutch control extending native education program areas government stipulated standard Malay colony language. Dutch not made official language colony widely used indigenous Indonesian population. Majority legally acknowledged Dutchmen bilingual Indo-Eurasians. Dutch used limited educated elite 1942 around two percent total population Dutch East Indies spoke Dutch including over 1 million indigenous Indonesians. Number Dutch loan words used present-day Indonesian particularly technical terms generally alternative Malay adopted Indonesian vocabulary giving linguistic insight concepts part Dutch colonial heritage. Hendrik Maier University California says about fifth contemporary Indonesian language traced Dutch. Dutch language literature inspired both colonial postcolonial Indies Dutch Golden Age present day includes Dutch Indo-European Indonesian authors subject matter thematically revolves Dutch colonial era also includes postcolonial discourse. Masterpieces genre include Multatuli Max Havelaar Coffee Auctions Dutch Trading Company Louis Couperus Hidden Force E du Perron Country Origin Maria Dermoût Ten Thousand Things. December 1958 American Time magazine praised translation Maria Dermoût's Ten Thousand Things named best books year among several iconic literary works 1958 Breakfast Tiffany's Truman Capote Doctor Zhivago Pasternak Lolita Nabokov. Most Dutch literature written Dutch Indo-European authors. First half 20th century Ethical Policy indigenous Indonesian authors intellectuals came Netherlands study work wrote Dutch language literary works published literature literary reviews Het Getij De Gemeenschap Links Richten Forum. Exploring new literary themes focusing indigenous protagonists drew attention indigenous culture indigenous plight examples Javanese prince poet Noto Soeroto writer journalist Dutch language writings Soewarsih Djojopoespito Chairil Anwar Kartini Sutan Sjahrir Sukarno. Much postcolonial discourse Dutch Indies literature written Indo-European authors led avant garde visionary Tjalie Robinson best-read Dutch author contemporary Indonesia second generation Indo-European immigrants Marion Bloem.

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