Grande Armée
Napoleon stood at the Camp of Boulogne on the 16th of August 1804. He watched over an army of over 100,000 men gathered there for a planned invasion of the United Kingdom. This force was originally named the Army of England or Armée des côtes de l'Océan. The soldiers waited in tents and barracks along the French coast while Napoleon prepared his fleet. No invasion ever took place because British naval power remained too strong to challenge. Instead, Napoleon turned the army eastward in late 1805 when the Third Coalition formed against France. The Grande Armée marched across Germany with surprising speed. They surrounded General Karl von Mack's Austrian forces at the fortress of Ulm by November. Sixty thousand Austrian prisoners were taken for the loss of just 2,000 French soldiers. Vienna fell shortly after but Austria refused to surrender its field army. Russian Emperor Alexander I had not yet committed his full strength to the conflict. The decisive battle came on the 2nd of December 1805 at Austerlitz. A numerically inferior Grande Armée routed combined Russo-Austrian forces led by Alexander himself. The stunning victory forced the Treaty of Pressburg on the 26th of December 1805. This treaty dissolved the Holy Roman Empire the following year.
The Grande Armée operated through self-contained corps that numbered between 10,000 and 50,000 men each. These units averaged around 20,000 to 30,000 troops during most campaigns. Each corps contained infantry divisions, cavalry squadrons, and artillery batteries all under one commander. Corps could defend themselves independently until reinforced by other parts of the army. Napoleon placed great trust in his marshals and allowed them wide freedom of action within strategic objectives. When they failed to cooperate properly he would reprimand or relieve them personally. Corps marched along separate routes across a wide front while staying within a day's march of one another. This dispersion allowed smaller supply trains since soldiers lived off foraging rather than carrying heavy loads. Forced marches enabled the army to surprise opposing forces through speed alone. General Jean Moreau first divided the Army of the Rhine into four temporary corps in 1800. Napoleon made these groupings permanent units in 1804. He sometimes formed cavalry into separate corps so they could move faster without being slowed by foot soldiers. The main tactical unit was the division containing 4,000 to 10,000 infantrymen or 2,000 to 4,000 cavalrymen. Divisions consisted of two or three brigades with regiments supporting an artillery brigade of six field cannons and two howitzers. These divisions remained permanent administrative and operational units commanded by generals capable of independent actions.
On the 24th of June 1812 the assembled Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River with 685,000 men total. Four hundred ten thousand came from the French Empire including Italy and German states. Ninety-five thousand were Poles and thirty-five thousand Austrians joined the force. Thirty thousand Italians and twenty-four thousand Bavarians also marched eastward. Twenty thousand Saxons and Prussians added their strength alongside seventeen thousand Westphalians. Fifteen thousand Swiss and ten thousand Danes and Norwegians completed the multinational invasion force. Only four thousand Spaniards and Portuguese accompanied them along with smaller groups of Croats and Irish. The campaign became characterized by frustration as Russian armies evaded Napoleon's pincers no fewer than three times. A final stand for Moscow led to the massive Battle of Borodino on the 7th of September 1812. The Grande Armée won a bloody but indecisive victory that cost thousands of lives. Seven days later they entered Moscow only to find it largely empty and ablaze. Soldiers fought fires while hunting down arsonists and guarding historic districts. Napoleon spent over a month in Moscow vainly hoping for peace offers from the Russian emperor. On October 19 he set out westward now only a shadow of his former self. Over half the army had been lost during summer skirmishes alone. Cold starvation disease and constant harassment by Cossacks destroyed what remained. Marshal Michel Ney conducted rearguard actions between his troops and pursuing Russians. By the time the Berezina was reached Napoleon held about 49,000 troops plus 40,000 stragglers. General Jean Baptiste Eblé's engineers saved the remnants through monumental work. Of the original 685,000 men only 93,000 survived the entire campaign. Three hundred eighty thousand died during the invasion.
Over one-third of the Grande Armée ranks were filled by non-French conscripts from satellite states or allied countries. This multinational composition distinguished the force from other European armies of the era. Soldiers could climb the ranks regardless of class wealth or national origin unlike many contemporaries. While most contingents commanded by French generals exceptions existed for Polish and Austrian units. The army grew as Napoleon seized power across Europe recruiting troops from occupied territories. At its peak in June 1812 the Grande Armée reached 413,000 French soldiers plus over 600,000 men overall including foreign recruits. In summer 1812 as large an amount as 300,000 French troops fought simultaneously in the Peninsular War against Spain. The behemoth force crossed the Niemen River on the 24th of June 1812 with diverse nationalities marching together toward Moscow. Fourteen thousand Westphalians joined twenty-four thousand Bavarians alongside thirty-five thousand Austrians. Twenty thousand Saxons and Prussians added their strength while fifteen thousand Swiss marched eastward. Ten thousand Danes and Norwegians completed the initial invasion force along with smaller groups of Croats and Irish. Only four thousand Spaniards and Portuguese accompanied them during the Russian campaign. These foreign contingents suffered heavily during the retreat yet remained part of the fighting force until the end.
The Imperial Guard formed a single Corps d'Armée containing infantry cavalry and artillery units like other corps but with unique identities. Napoleon wanted it to serve as an example for the entire army since it had fought with him over several campaigns. Although infantry rarely committed en masse the Guard's cavalry often threw itself into battle as the killing blow. Artillery pounded enemies prior to assaults while infantry held crucial moments in reserve. The Old Guard composed the longest serving veterans some having served in over 20 campaigns. To join the Grenadiers a recruit needed ten years service plus citations for bravery and literacy. They stood taller than 178 centimeters and wore dark blue coats with red turnbacks and white lapels. Their most distinguishing feature was the tall bearskin hat decorated with engraved gold plates and red plumes. During the 1807 Polish campaign Napoleon gave these Grenadiers the nickname Les Grognards meaning The Grumblers. By 1815 four regiments of Grenadiers existed including additions from 1810 and 1815. Two battalions of the 1st Grenadiers formed squares at Waterloo protecting the general retreat. The Chasseurs of the Guard were second only to Grenadiers yet accepted men 172 centimeters and taller. They wore flamboyant green red and gold hussar style uniforms during their early combat phases. The Cavalry of the Guard included two regiments initially: Chasseurs à Cheval and Grenadiers à Cheval plus elite Gendarmes. A third regiment added in 1806 became known as Dragons de l'Impératice honoring Empress Joséphine.
The catastrophe in Russia emboldened anti-French sentiments throughout Europe leading to formation of the Sixth Coalition. Germany became the centerpiece of the upcoming campaign where Napoleon raised new armies despite poor quality troops following the Russian disaster. He opened the campaign with victories at Lützen and Bautzen but these triumphs proved insufficient to win the war. An armistice allowed him time to increase quantity and improve quality of his forces before Austria joined the Allies. Strategic situations grew bleak when Austrian participation tipped the balance against France. August brought significant French victory at Dresden but adoption of the Trachenberg Plan by Allies paid dividends through defeats at Großbeeren and Katzbach. Growing Allied numbers eventually hemmed the French in at Leipzig where a bridge was prematurely destroyed abandoning 30,000 soldiers on the other side of the Elster River. Napoleon managed to raise new armies strategically placing himself in virtually hopeless positions as Allied armies invaded from multiple fronts. The Six Days' Campaign of February 1814 saw 30,000 men inflict 20,000 casualties on Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher's scattered corps for just 2,000 losses themselves. They then defeated Field Marshal Karl von Schwarzenberg's corps at Montereau yet could not remedy overall defeat. Paris fell to Allies in late March forcing Napoleon to abdicate on the 6th of April 1814 after marshals refused further fighting. Returning from exile on Elba in February 1815 Napoleon commanded the Army of the North which proved professional and competent unlike previous formations. The campaign began the 15th of June 1815 initially successful leading to victory over Prussians at Ligny on June 16. Poor staff work and bad commanders created problems throughout the entire campaign allowing Blücher to rally his men after Ligny. Marshal Emmanuel de Grouchy delayed advance against Prussians enabling them to march on Wellington's aid at Waterloo resulting in final decisive defeat.
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Common questions
When did Napoleon stand at the Camp of Boulogne with the Grande Armée?
Napoleon stood at the Camp of Boulogne on the 16th of August 1804. He watched over an army of over 100,000 men gathered there for a planned invasion of the United Kingdom.
What was the total number of men in the Grande Armée when it crossed the Niemen River on the 24th of June 1812?
On the 24th of June 1812 the assembled Grande Armée crossed the Niemen River with 685,000 men total. Of the original 685,000 men only 93,000 survived the entire campaign and three hundred eighty thousand died during the invasion.
How many Austrian prisoners were taken by the Grande Armée at the fortress of Ulm in November 1805?
Sixty thousand Austrian prisoners were taken for the loss of just 2,000 French soldiers. The Grande Armée surrounded General Karl von Mack's Austrian forces at the fortress of Ulm by November.
Who commanded the Army of the North that Napoleon led after returning from exile on Elba in February 1815?
Napoleon commanded the Army of the North which proved professional and competent unlike previous formations. He returned from exile on Elba in February 1815 to lead this force into the campaign beginning the 15th of June 1815.
What specific height requirement did recruits need to meet to join the Grenadiers of the Old Guard?
To join the Grenadiers a recruit needed ten years service plus citations for bravery and literacy. They stood taller than 178 centimeters and wore dark blue coats with red turnbacks and white lapels.