Grand Principality of Moscow

• 1. Origins And Early Expansion

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  In 1263, Daniel, the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, received Moscow as an appanage principality. This small territory likely encompassed the basin of the upper Moskva River, stretching between the eastern influx of the Gzhelka and the western influx of the Ruza. The northeast of this land consisted of the basin of the upper Klyazma. By the turn of the 14th century, Moscow had become one of the leading principalities within Vladimir-Suzdal. Daniel defeated Ryazan in 1301, after which Kolomna and Serpukhov were incorporated into the Moscow principality. Pereyaslavl was also temporarily annexed to Moscow, and after Daniel's death, his sons seized Mozhaysk in 1304. At this point, the territory of the principality had increased almost three-fold and included the entire Moskva River along with its tributaries. Its southern border included a large stretch of the Oka, from Serpukhov to the east of Kolomna, which gave it some protection from Tatar incursions. To the east, there was a dense forest zone which functioned as a natural barrier. Moscow also had access to the northern areas of Ryazan and direct access to Vladimir. It was also provided with a river network that facilitated trade.

• 2. Struggle For Suzerainty

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  A struggle between the princes of Moscow and Tver began after Mikhail of Tver became grand prince in 1304. Yury contested the title and was later made grand prince in 1318 by the khan of the Golden Horde. However, Yury would lose the title four years later. Ivan I regained the title of grand prince and was able to collect tribute for the khan from other Russian princes, which increased Moscow's wealth. The seat of the Russian Orthodox Church was also moved from Vladimir to Moscow, establishing it as the spiritual center of Russian Orthodoxy. Ivan I defeated Tver and secured the grand princely title for his sons, Simeon and Ivan II. After Ivan II's death, the title was temporarily lost until it was regained by Dmitry, who permanently united the thrones of Vladimir and Moscow by the end of his reign. He also inflicted a milestone defeat on the Tatars in 1380, which greatly increased Moscow's prestige. As the Golden Horde declined, its hegemony was increasingly challenged. Vasily I greatly expanded his domain, but was ultimately forced to resume paying tribute due to Tatar raids. Vasily II consolidated his control of Moscow after a civil war and his reign saw the Russian Church declare autocephaly.

• 3. Military Victories And Independence

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  In 1378, Dmitry mobilized his forces against Mamai and won a victory in the Battle of the Vozha River. Afterwards, Mamai mobilized a large army and made an alliance with Lithuania. He also recruited Oleg II of Ryazan, whose domain had been exposed to constant attack from the steppe. Dmitry gathered troops from all the territories he controlled, although no forces were sent from Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod or Tver. He was joined by Andrei of Polotsk and Dmitry of Bryansk, members of the Lithuanian ruling house who were enemies of their half-brother Jogaila. Before the Lithuanian army could join Mamai's forces, the Russian troops defeated them in the 1380 Battle of Kulikovo and Mamai fled south. Although later generations saw the Russian victory as a triumph, the principalities remained under Mongol suzerainty and Tokhtamysh launched a punitive expedition, sacking Moscow in 1382. Despite this, Moscow greatly increased its prestige and Dmitry made Oleg of Ryazan recognize him as his feudal superior again. After Moscow was sacked, Dmitry accepted Mongol suzerainty and he was confirmed as the grand prince. The khan forced him to collect an exceptionally large amount of tribute and held his son Vasily as hostage.

• 4. Centralization Of Power

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  Ivan III succeeded his father and his reign has been considered to mark the end of the appanage period and the beginning of a new period in Russian history known as Muscovite Russia. At the start of Ivan's reign, Moscow was already the political and religious center of Russia, but Ivan vastly expanded the domain of the grand prince with the gathering of the Russian lands. After Novgorod's boyar class turned to Lithuania for support, Ivan's army defeated the Novgorodian army in 1471, after which Ivan took an oath of allegiance from Novgorod, but left its system of government in place. After the Novgorodian authorities attempted to turn to Lithuania again, Ivan's army marched against the city in 1478 and the city surrendered. Ivan imposed his direct rule on the city and abolished its system of government. Tver offered even less resistance, and when Ivan launched a new campaign against Tver in 1485, its prince fled to Lithuania. Ivan incorporated other appanages into the grand principality, while other princes acknowledged him as their overlord. As a result, Ivan began to rule Russia as a unified monarchy. Having consolidated the core of Russia under his rule, Ivan III became the first Muscovite ruler to use the title of tsar in his correspondence. He also adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia and competed with his powerful rival, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, for control over the Upper Oka Principalities.

• 5. Religious Revival And Identity

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  In the centuries following the Mongol conquest, there was a revival and flourishing of monasticism, which became the most significant development in the life of the Russian Church. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, monasticism spread in an unprecedented manner. One estimate suggests around 250 cenobitic monasteries and convents were founded during this period, many in remote corners of the Muscovite realm. Sergius of Radonezh was both the driving force and the embodiment of the monastic revival. Around 1354, he adopted a monastic rule that turned his followers into a fully communal, cenobitic organization, later known as the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius. The teachings of Sergius inspired many of his followers to found their own communities. The Andronikov, Simonov and Chudov Monasteries were founded in Moscow and its environs, while others were founded in remote areas of the Russian North, such as the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery near Beloozero and the Solovetsky Monastery on the island of Solovetsky in the White Sea. This monastic revival inspired the church to renew its missionary work and continue converting all peoples, whether Slavic or not, to Orthodox Christianity.

• 6. Social Structure And Economy

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  The vast majority of the population were peasants. The peasants' primary allegiance was to the commune. Although little information exists on the structure of peasant communes before the 16th century, historians believe that, by that time, the commune already had a very long history and deep roots. The peasants of either a district, village or several hamlets chose elders who would represent them through the commune. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Muscovite government viewed the commune as a useful tool in governing the realm. For instance, the commune's members were collectively responsible for paying taxes, and therefore if one household failed to pay its share, then the others had to pay what was owed. Therefore, administrative ordinances recognized the traditional functions of the commune and used them to suit the needs of officials. Over the centuries, peasant land increasingly passed into the hands of nobles and monasteries. Although the peasants continued to farm the land, they were now required to pay dues to the lord. These dues sometimes included the peasants giving their lord a small amount of money and specified amounts of rye, oats, butter, and other products. In other cases, peasants were obligated to provide a range of services, such as cultivating the fields of monks or baking their bread.

• 7. Cultural Renaissance And Art

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  A distinct school of icon painting was formed in Moscow in the second half of the 14th century, and would be led by Andrei Rublev, one of the most celebrated Russian icon painters. Among his most notable works is The Trinity, which dates to the early 15th century. The first original Russian school, the Suzdal school, was merged with the Moscow school in the early 15th century. Igor Grabar said it could be distinguished by a general tone, which is always cool, silvery, in contrast to Novgorodian painting which inevitably tends towards the warm, the yellowish, the golden. Dionisius continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev and the Moscow school at the turn of the 16th century. The art of the miniature in illuminated manuscripts also continued to develop in Moscow, with manuscripts like the Khitrovo Gospels containing rich illustrations. The Moscow architectural school, which extended to the smaller principalities that were incorporated, evolved steadily throughout the 15th century. In smaller towns, a more distinct type of church emerged, one that returned to the Vladimir school. A group of cathedrals built at the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century exemplifies the early Moscow style that preceded the arrival of Renaissance craftsmen.