White Sea

• 1. Geographic Extent And Topography

  ›

  The International Hydrographic Organization defines the northern limit of the White Sea as a line joining Svyatoy Nos and Cape Kanin. This boundary marks where the southern inlet meets the Barents Sea to the north. Four main bays or gulfs connect with this funnel-shaped opening via a narrow strait called Gorlo, meaning throat. Kandalaksha Gulf lies in the western part and reaches 340 metres deep, making it the deepest section of the entire sea. On the south, Onega Bay receives the Onega River while Dvina Bay takes the Northern Dvina at Arkhangelsk. Mezen Bay sits on the east side opposite the Kola Peninsula and receives both the Mezen and Kuloy rivers. The seabed varies significantly between silt and sand in the central parts versus mixtures of sand and stones near the northern shores. Ice age deposits often emerge near the sea shores along the rocky northwestern coasts. The Solovetsky Islands sit almost in the middle of the sea near the entrance to Onega Bay. Velikiy Island is the largest island in the Kandalaksha Gulf close to the shore.

  123

• 2. Hydrography And Climate Patterns

  ›

  Rivers bring annually about 215 cubic kilometres of fresh water mostly to the Onega, Mezen and Dvina bays. The Northern Dvina alone may contribute up to 171 cubic kilometres in some years. About 40% of this volume arrives during snow melting in May with minimal inflow from February through March. Storms are strongest in October and November when wave heights average one metre but sometimes reach three to five metres. The sea remains quiet during July and August under summer conditions. Winds are predominantly southwestern in winter with speeds of four to eight meters per second bringing cold air from the south. Temperature reaches minus fifteen degrees Celsius over most of the sea in February while the northern part stays warmer at minus nine degrees. Arctic anticyclones change winds to northeastern ones bringing much colder weather around minus twenty-five degrees. Average July temperatures stay between eight and ten degrees Celsius despite occasional southeastern winds raising it to thirty degrees. Annual precipitations increase from 282 millimetres in the north to 529 millimetres in the south. From October to April the sea freezes with ice thickness usually about 40 centimetres but reaching 150 centimetres in cold winters.

  456

• 3. Early Exploration And Trade Routes

  ›

  Residents of Novgorod knew of the White Sea from at least the 11th century and rapidly explored its commercial significance for navigation. One of the earliest settlements near the sea shores grew up in the late 14th century at Kholmogory on the Northern Dvina. In 1492 a merchant fleet laden with grain sailed to Denmark carrying ambassadors of Ivan III of Russia. This marked the establishment of the first international seaport in Russia. The first foreign ship to arrive in Kholmogory was the English Edward Bonaventure commanded by Richard Chancellor in 1553. His crew had sought a northern route to the Indies especially India and China alongside two other ships under Hugh Willoughby. King Edward VI of England sponsored the expedition along with a group of about 240 English merchants. London's authorisation allowed them to establish trade connections while the ships of Willoughby were separated and lost at sea. Chancellor managed to pass the White Sea and reach Kholmogory before being escorted to Moscow to meet Tsar Ivan IV. Returning from Russia in 1554 he brought back detailed descriptions of Moscow largely unknown to Europe. Queen Mary issued a charter in 1555 authorising the Muscovy Company to trade with Russia via the White Sea route.

  789

• 4. Port Development And Naval History

  ›

  Dutch ships soon followed the English making the port of Kholmogory busy with shipments of fur and fish. Local and foreign shops and factories were established in the city during that period. The port was reinforced with a fortress which sustained a siege by the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1613. Increasing traffic overloaded the port relying on shallow river-waters with limited ship-capacity. Instead of expanding the old port Ivan IV established a new one down-river in 1584 called New Kholmogory. From 1596 this location began to become known as Arkhangelsk. Between the 15th and early 18th centuries the White Sea served as the major trade route in and out of Russia. This role decreased later after the foundation of Saint Petersburg in 1703 opened a more direct ice-free connection. From the 1920s most northern Russian sea shipments diverted from the White Sea to the new port of Murmansk officially founded in 1916. For much of Russia's history Arkhangelsk remained the main centre of international maritime trade conducted by Pomors or seaside settlers. In the modern era it became an important Soviet naval and submarine base.

  101112

• 5. Marine Ecosystem And Biodiversity

  ›

  The sea hosts more than 700 species of invertebrates about 60 species of fish and five species of marine mammals including beluga whales. Several other dolphin species such as harbour porpoises appear less frequently while larger whales like bowhead and humpback are rare visitors. The fishing industry is relatively small mostly targeting harp seal ringed seal herring saffron cod European smelt Atlantic cod and Atlantic salmon. There is a developing seaweed industry alongside traditional catches. Five species of marine mammals live within these waters with the friendly beluga being one notable example. Larger whales such as rorquals and norther bottlenose have been considered as rare visitors to the waters though actual frequency remains unspecified. The population of marine life thrives despite seasonal freezing cycles that affect surface temperatures differently across regions. Deep sea areas around 100 metres or more maintain stable temperature at minus 1.4 degrees Celsius and salinity at 30 parts per thousand.

• 6. Economic Infrastructure And Connectivity

  ›

  The White Sea, Baltic Canal links it through Lake Onega to the Baltic Sea and the major city and port of Saint Petersburg. The Baltic Sea connects by the Volga, Baltic Waterway to the Volga River Black Caspian and Azov seas. Major ports on the White Sea include Arkhangelsk Belomorsk Onega Mezen Kem Kandalaksha and Umba. Despite being frozen in winter the sea remains navigable all year around because of deployment of icebreakers. It serves as an important traffic centre of northwestern Russia interconnecting various economic regions. This infrastructure provides an outlet to foreign routes while maintaining domestic connectivity between different economic zones. The canal system allows vessels to bypass natural barriers created by shallow depths and ice formation periods. Annual water exchange reaches about 2,000 cubic kilometres flowing out and 2,200 cubic kilometres flowing into the sea. These movements promote water exchange with the Barents Sea despite the narrow strait called Gorlo hindering direct flow.