German revolution of 1918–1919
In August 1914, the Social Democratic Party of Germany voted to approve war bonds requested by the imperial government. Ninety-six SPD deputies joined Friedrich Ebert in supporting the measure while fourteen others spoke out against it but still followed party discipline. The decision rested on a belief actively fostered by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg that Germany fought a defensive war. Hugo Haase explained the vote with words stating: "We will not abandon our Fatherland in its hour of danger!" Emperor Wilhelm II welcomed this political truce and declared he knew only Germans rather than parties.
As the conflict dragged on and death tolls rose, internal dissent grew within the socialist ranks. The Supreme Army Command introduced the Auxiliary Services Act in December 1916 which proposed full mobilization including women into the workforce. This militarisation of labor relations met strong criticism forcing the OHL to agree to participation by trade unions and Reichstag parties. After the Russian February Revolution erupted in early 1917, organized strikes hit German armament factories in January 1918 involving four hundred thousand workers in Berlin alone.
The leadership under Friedrich Ebert expelled anti-war opponents from the party in January 1917. These Spartacists joined revisionists like Eduard Bernstein and centrist Marxists such as Karl Kautsky to found the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) on the 6th of April 1917. By late September 1918 General Ludendorff informed Emperor Wilhelm II that the military situation was hopeless. He recommended accepting American President Woodrow Wilson's demand for democratizing the imperial government while shifting responsibility for defeat onto democratic parties.
A naval order issued on the 24th of October 1918 triggered a mutiny among sailors anchored off Wilhelmshaven who refused to risk their lives near war's end. The Imperial Naval Command planned an unauthorized last battle against the British Royal Navy without authorization from the new civilian government seeking an armistice with Entente powers. Police and soldiers opened fire on a protest march toward Kiel prison killing at least nine demonstrators on November 3rd.
Workers declared a general strike supporting the protest while sailors from barracks north of Kiel joined the march alongside many soldiers sent to control unrest. Admiral Wilhelm Souchon released imprisoned sailors but by then workers' councils controlled Kiel itself. Groups of sailors traveled to nearby cities spreading the uprising across western Germany within days. By November 7th revolutionaries held all large coastal cities including Lübeck Bremen Hamburg Braunschweig Cologne and Munich.
In Bavaria Kurt Eisner of the USPD became president of the Workers Peasants Soldiers Council proclaiming the People's State of Bavaria on November 8th. King Ludwig III fled Munich for Austria where he made his Anif declaration relieving civil servants and military personnel from loyalty oaths effective November 12th. Dynastic rulers of other German states abdicated without bloodshed before month's end.
Friedrich Ebert agreed that Prince Max of Baden should transfer chancellorship to him after failing to convince Emperor Wilhelm II to abdicate personally. On November 9th Chancellor von Baden proclaimed both thrones renounced without authorization transferring power directly to Ebert who announced formation of a new people's government. Philipp Scheidemann stepped to a Reichstag window declaring a republic before mass demonstrators while Karl Liebknecht spoke hours later from Berlin Palace balcony calling for socialist republic.
Negotiations between SPD leaders and Revolutionary Stewards produced an Executive Council chaired by Richard Müller representing soldiers alongside seven members each from SPD and USPD parties. A phone call between Ebert and General Groener resulted in secret agreement guaranteeing army support if military hierarchies remained unchanged. Groener stated: "The best and strongest element of old Prussianism was saved for new Germany." This pact meant no attempt would be made to democratize the authoritarian military structure despite Hamburg Points demanding soldier elections replacing standing armies with Volkswehr forces.
On December 6th armed students attempted putsch offering Friedrich Ebert nearly dictatorial powers which he carefully refused. Later that day Garde-Füsilier-Regiment fired on Spartacist demonstration killing sixteen people seriously wounding twelve others. Historian Heinrich August Winkler attributes these events to high-ranking officers planning disbandment of workers councils using military support.
People's Navy Division stationed across from Berlin Palace became central figure during Christmas crisis when ordered out of city early November then reduced size refusing pay on December 23rd. Sailors occupied Reich Chancellery cutting phone lines placing Council under house arrest while taking Otto Wels hostage physically abusing him. Government troops attacked palace morning of December 24th but sailors repelled assault joined by armed workers police security forces losing fifty-six soldiers compared to just eleven deaths among People's Navy Division members who received their backpay afterward.
Main result named Bloody Christmas by Spartacists caused USPD resignation from government in protest ending December 29th. Three USPD representatives replaced by two SPD appointees: Gustav Noske handling military affairs and Rudolf Wissell managing labor social services. In light of military failure at Berlin Palace Noske ordered strengthening Freikorps for use against internal enemies threatening state stability.
Rosa Luxemburg demanded peaceful disarmament returning soldiers through worker control while wanting soldier councils subordinated revolutionary parliament re-educating men serving nation. Her newspaper Rote Fahne called for complete transformation yet negotiations failed leaving deep divisions between moderate socialist leadership radical left factions unable reconcile differences over future governance structure.
After experiences with both major parties Spartacists founded Communist Party Germany presenting founding programme drawn up Rosa Luxemburg the 31st of December 1918 stating communists could never take power without clear majority will. January 5th saw hundreds thousands pouring into central Berlin many armed occupying train stations newspaper district offices middle-class press SPD headquarters following dismissal Emil Eichhorn chief Berlin police supporting People Navy Division earlier month.
Revolutionary Committee elected fifty-three member Interim Revolutionary Committee failing make effective use powers providing unclear direction despite Liebknecht agreeing overthrowing government supported by committee majority favoring armed struggle. Rosa Luxemburg Leo Jogiches Karl Radek thought revolt premature speaking out initially before giving in to majority will eventually joining protests filling streets Siegesallee Alexanderplatz January 6th.
Freikorps forces attacked occupied buildings heavy weaponry November 11th killing six negotiating parliamentarians summarily shooting remaining occupants same day ending uprising twelve days later estimated death toll reaching one hundred fifty-six people murdered during violent suppression phase lasting until mid-January when final battles concluded March 16th total casualties exceeding thousand two hundred lives lost nationwide including eight hundred dead Munich May fighting about sixty Bremen February.
Short-lived soviet republics proclaimed number cities towns early nineteen-hundred-nineteen only those Bavaria Bremen lasted longer few days overthrown government Freikorps troops considerable loss life: eighty deaths Bremen February roughly six hundred Munich May according predominant modern historian opinion establishing Bolshevik-style council Germany post-war impossible Ebert felt threatened coup Left certainly undermined Spartacus movement underlying cooperation Supreme Army Command Freikorps brutal actions estranged many left democrats from SPD regarding behavior leaders betrayal own followers.
General strikes called Upper Silesia January Ruhr district February Saxony Thuringia February March Berlin members USPD KPD started four March key aims socialisation major industries democratization military safeguarding position remaining workers soldiers councils against will leadership escalated street fighting Prussian state declared siege calling Reich help responding deployment both government Freikorps troops nine Gustav Noske executive power transferred gave order shoot sight anyone found carrying weapon by end fighting sixteen march uprising bloodily quashed at least twelve hundred death toll recorded across regions involved multiple uprisings throughout first months year culminating Berlin March Battles overall cause continued disappointment among radical left workers revolution failed achieve goals hoped November one thousand nine hundred eighteen nationalising key industries recognition workers soldiers councils establishment council republic attaining goals required overthrowing Ebert government.
January nineteen nineteen Germans voted representatives constituent national assembly election including women time receiving highest percentage votes thirty-eight percent Catholic Centre Party liberal German Democratic Party formed Weimar Coalition USPD received seven point six percent vote Communist Party did not participate National Assembly met Weimar beginning sixth February electing Friedrich Ebert temporary president eleventh Philipp Scheidemann minister president thirteenth drawing approving new constitution passing urgently needed laws May finding itself embroiled highly contentious issue accepting terms Treaty Versailles under intense pressure victorious Allies agreed June sixteen after Scheidemann resigned words: "What hand should wither puts self us these fetters?" Gustav Bauer took place.
Constitution ratified August eleven effective three days establishing federal parliamentary republic comprehensive list fundamental rights popularly elected Reichstag responsible legislation budget control executive headed chancellor dependent confidence Reichstag president elected popular vote seven years could dissolve Reichstag Article forty-eight power declare state emergency issuing emergency decrees public security threatened October twenty-two Reichstag lengthened term office until二十三June two-thousand-five died office few months Paul von Hindenburg elected second last president Republic use Article four-eight instrumental paving way Adolf Hitler rise power From nineteen-twenty to nineteen-tw-three nationalist left-wing forces continued fighting against Republic March nineteen-tw-zero coup Wolfgang Kapp organized overthrow government venture collapsed within few days effects general strike refusal government employees obey Kapp Members ultra-nationalist Organisation Consul assassinated former finance Matthias Erzberger one thousand nine hundred twenty-one Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau two thousand nine hundred twenty-two recently formed Nazi Party leadership Adolf Hitler Beer Hall Putsch planned take over Bavaria march Berlin seize control Reich government attempt made November ninth stopped Munich local police arrested sentenced five years released less year wake Kapp Putch civil war-like fighting broke Ruhr Red Army making up some fifty thousand armed workers mostly adherents Communist Workers Party Germany used disruption caused putch taking control regions industrial district bloody battles estimated thousand insurgents soldiers died Reichswehr Freikorps units suppressed revolt early April.
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Common questions
Who led the Social Democratic Party of Germany during the German revolution of 1918, 1919?
Friedrich Ebert led the Social Democratic Party of Germany during the German revolution of 1918, 1919. He agreed to transfer chancellorship from Prince Max of Baden and announced the formation of a new people's government on November 9th.
When did the mutiny among sailors anchored off Wilhelmshaven begin in the German revolution of 1918, 1919?
The mutiny among sailors anchored off Wilhelmshaven began with a naval order issued on the 24th of October 1918. This event triggered protests that spread across western Germany within days leading to control of large coastal cities by November 7th.
What happened during Bloody Christmas in the German revolution of 1918, 1919?
Bloody Christmas occurred when Government troops attacked the People's Navy Division stationed across from Berlin Palace on December 24th. The assault resulted in fifty-six soldiers losing their lives compared to just eleven deaths among People's Navy Division members who received backpay afterward.
How many people died during the violent suppression phase of the January uprising in the German revolution of 1918, 1919?
An estimated death toll reached one hundred fifty-six people murdered during the violent suppression phase lasting until mid-January. Total casualties exceeded thousand two hundred lives lost nationwide including eight hundred dead Munich May fighting and about sixty Bremen February.
When was the Weimar Constitution ratified and what powers did it grant the president?
The constitution was ratified August eleven effective three days establishing a federal parliamentary republic. Article forty-eight granted the president power to declare state emergency issuing emergency decrees if public security threatened allowing dissolution of Reichstag for seven years.