Fall of the Republic of Venice
In April 1796, General Napoleon Bonaparte crossed the Alps with 45,000 men to confront Austrian and Piedmontese forces. He chose to march through Venetian territory despite its official neutrality. The Republic of Venice had followed a traditional policy of avoiding conflict for centuries. Yet its mainland possessions in northern Italy now lay directly in the path of the French army advancing toward Vienna. On the 20th of May 1796, the French denounced an earlier armistice agreement and recommenced hostilities within Venetian lands. The state of Venetian defenses was described as parlous, with arms lacking and fortifications in disrepair. Refugees fleeing war poured into Venetian Lombardy alongside shattered detachments of retreating Austrian troops. Only with great difficulty did Venetian authorities prevent both Austrian forces under General Wilhelm Lothar Maria von Kerpen and pursuing French units led by Louis Alexandre Berthier from passing through Crema. Napoleon himself arrived before the city offering a proposal of alliance that received no reply. In view of the poor defensive state, both the Venetian government and local Terraferma authorities put up only weak resistance to the crossing of their territory by retreating Austrians. They firmly refused requests from the Habsburg ambassador to provide even secret food or supplies to Austrian forces.
On the 31st of July 1797, Napoleon occupied Brescia Castle while Austrian counteroffensives faltered across Lake Garda and the Brenta River. The population and part of the Venetian troops quartered in Verona grew tired of French arrogance and oppression. On the 20th of April 1798, events precipitated themselves at Verona during what became known as the Veronese Easter uprising. The French frigate attempted to enter the Porto di Lido despite a recent ban on foreign warships entering the lagoon. Artillery on the Fort of Sant'Andrea opened fire sinking the ship and killing its captain. The episode quickly reduced occupation troops to the defensive positions within the city's forts. On the 24th of April, Venice was forced to capitulate after refusing to mobilize reinforcements for Verona. The French general Jean-Andoche Junot received letters complaining about anti-French general uprisings throughout the Terraferma region. On the 6th of April, a Venetian cavalry ensign was arrested for treason by French forces and led to Brescia. Raids carried out by Brescian revolutionaries clad in French uniforms reached as far as Legnano gates. A proclamation called upon the population of the Terraferma to abandon Venice which had until then been preoccupied only with securing its own capital.
On the 12th of May 1797, between rumors of conspiracies and imminent French attack, the Great Council met for the last time. Despite the presence of only 537 of the 1,200 patricians forming full membership, Doge Ludovico Manin opened the session with specific words declaring the end of an era. The council examined French demands brought before it by Venetian Jacobins entailing government abdication in favor of a Provisional Municipality. They required planting a tree of liberty in St Mark's Square and disembarking a 4,000-strong contingent of French soldiers. During the session, panic erupted at gunshots from the square when Schiavoni fired muskets saluting the Banner of Saint Mark before embarking on ships. The terrified patricians feared this signaled popular revolt rather than celebration. With 512 votes in favor, 5 abstentions, and 20 against, the Republic was declared abolished. As the assembly dispersed in haste, the Doge and magistrates deposed their insignia presenting themselves at the balcony of the Doge's Palace to announce the decision to crowds gathered below. The crowd erupted not in cries for revolution but in shouts of Viva San Marco! and Viva la Repubblica!. Patricians attempted to pacify the crowd while patrols of men from the Arsenal fired artillery shots at Rialto restoring order.
On the 21st of November during the traditional Festa della Salute, representatives of the Municipality were publicly upbraided by people and abandoned power. French occupiers gave themselves over to unbridled plunder across Venice. Of the 184 ships in the Arsenal, those already equipped were sent to Toulon while others were scuttled ending the Venetian navy forever. Magazines belonging to the fleet were plundered and two thousand Arsenal workers dismissed before the entire complex burned down. Churches convents and numerous palazzi were emptied of valuables and artworks throughout the city. The state mint known as zecca and treasury of St Mark's Basilica were confiscated along with ceremonial vessels. The Doge's galley Bucintoro was denuded of all sculptures which were then burned on San Giorgio Maggiore island to recover gold leaf. Even bronze Horses of Saint Mark were carried off to Paris while private citizens imprisoned forced to hand over wealth in exchange for freedom. On the 28th of December French military and police committee took power until Austrian troops entered the city on the 18th of January 1798 ending the period of plunder.
After the Coup of 18 Fructidor on the 4th of September 1797 Republican hardliners took control in France pushing for resumption of hostilities with Austria. Napoleon received orders from Directory to annul Leoben accord and issue ultimatum leaving Austrians without possibility retaking Italy. However general disregarded instructions continuing peace talks with Habsburgs instead. Cities of Terraferma agreed to participate in conference at Venice deciding common fate of former territories though union with Cisalpine Republic decided against population choice. Last meeting between French and Austrians occurred the 16th of October villa of ex-Doge Ludovico Manin in Codroipo. Treaty of Campoformio signed the 17th of October formally consigning Venetian territories to Austria according to secret clauses of Leoben. Provisional Municipality and all other Jacobin administrations established by French ceased existing immediately. On the 28th of October people summoned by parish expressed acceptance or resistance of French decisions yielding 10,843 votes submitting out of 23,568 total cast. Activities of Austrian agents and deposed patriciate opened way for Austrian occupation while Provisional Municipality envoys arrested Milan sent home.
Austrian administration did not last long as the 26th of December 1805 Treaty of Pressburg ceded Venetian Province and Dalmatia from Austrian Empire to Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon crowned King of Italy with Iron Crown Lombardy at Milan on the 26th of May same year following proclamation as Emperor of French previous year. Treaty of Schönbrunn 1809 transferred Dalmatia under direct French administration becoming Illyrian Provinces. Venice returned to French control where Napoleon suppressed religious orders beginning large-scale public works transforming city into imperial capital. Piazza San Marco received new wing constructed as royal residence called Ala Napoleonica or Procuratie Nuovissime. New avenue Via Eugenia opened renamed Via Garibaldi in 1866 named after stepson viceroy Eugène de Beauharnais. Second period French rule ended fall Napoleon War Sixth Coalition. On the 20th of April 1814 Venice returned to Austrian rule entire Veneto followed region incorporated Kingdom Lombardy-Venetia 1815. Venice alone among major states destroyed French Revolution remained unrecovered after Napoleon defeat until final incorporation Italian kingdom 1866.
Shock Fall Republic particularly handing autocratic Austrian Empire portrayed novel Last Letters Jacopo Ortis 1798 by Ugo Foscolo Venetian noble Ionian Islands. In nineteenth-century national-minded historiography matter largely avoided both French Italians embarrassing episode. For former betrayal democratic municipalities Campo Formio explained emphasizing long decline Republic corresponding inevitability demise. For latter collaboration Venetian elites fall Republic evidence lack patriotism. On the 12th of May 1997 200th anniversary Fall Venetian Republic separatist Lega Nord party staged occupation St Mark's Campanile. Girolamo Dandolo published La caduta della Repubblica di Venezia ed i suoi ultimi cinquant'anni Pietro Naratovich Venice 1855 documenting events. Francesco Frasca wrote Bonaparte dopo Capoformio Lo smembramento della Repubblica di Venezia e progetti francesi espansione Mediterraneo Rivista Marittima Italian Ministry Defence Rome March 2007 pages 97-103 analyzing aftermath.
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Common questions
When did the Republic of Venice officially end its existence?
The Great Council met for the last time on the 12th of May 1797 and declared the Republic abolished with 512 votes in favor. This session marked the formal dissolution of the state after centuries of traditional policy.
Who was the Doge when the Republic of Venice fell in 1797?
Doge Ludovico Manin opened the final session of the Great Council on the 12th of May 1797 to declare the end of an era. He subsequently deposed his insignia and announced the decision to crowds gathered below the balcony of the Doge's Palace.
What happened to Venetian ships and naval assets during the French occupation?
Of the 184 ships in the Arsenal, those already equipped were sent to Toulon while others were scuttled ending the Venetian navy forever. The Doge's galley Bucintoro was denuded of all sculptures which were then burned on San Giorgio Maggiore island to recover gold leaf.
Which treaty formally transferred Venetian territories to Austria in 1797?
The Treaty of Campoformio signed the 17th of October 1797 formally consigning Venetian territories to Austria according to secret clauses of Leoben. This agreement ended the Provisional Municipality and all other Jacobin administrations established by French forces immediately.
When did Austrian rule over Venice begin after the initial French occupation?
Austrian troops entered the city on the 18th of January 1798 ending the period of plunder that began with the French military committee taking power on the 28th of December. Venice returned to Austrian rule entirely following the fall of Napoleon War Sixth Coalition on the 20th of April 1814.