Ephesus

• 1. Neolithic And Bronze Age Origins

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  Humans had begun inhabiting the area surrounding Ephesus by the Neolithic Age, about 6000 BC. Excavations at the nearby höyük of Arvalya and Cukurici have revealed evidence of these early settlements. The site later became known as Ayasuluk Hill during the Early Bronze Age. Archaeologists uncovered a burial ground from the Mycenaean era between 1500 and 1400 BC near the ruins of the basilica of St. John in 1954. This grave contained ceramic pots that provided insight into the region's ancient history. Hittite sources identify Apasa or Abasa as the capital of the kingdom of Arzawa. Some scholars suggest this location is identical to what Greeks later called Ephesus. Recent inscriptions seem to pinpoint these places within the Hittite records. The names Apasa and Ephesus appear to be cognate according to linguistic studies. Greek migration established the city as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on a hill now known as Ayasuluk Hill. This settlement sat three kilometers from the center of ancient Ephesus.

• 2. Temple Of Artemis Construction

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  The Temple of Artemis was completed around 550 BC and designated one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Pliny stated the magnificent structure took 120 years to build with over 100 marble pillars each standing 56 feet high. The temple measured 418 feet by 239 feet and earned the city the title Servant of the Goddess. In 356 BC, the temple burned down according to legend by a lunatic named Herostratus. The inhabitants set about restoring the temple immediately after the fire. They planned a larger and grander version than the original structure. Croesus became the main contributor to the reconstruction after regretting his sacrilege during earlier conflicts. Alexander the Great proposed financing the unfinished temple but the inhabitants demurred claiming it was not fitting for one god to build a temple to another. Only one inconspicuous column remains today revealed during an archaeological excavation by the British Museum in the 1870s. Some fragments of the frieze were removed to London and others to the İstanbul Archaeology Museums.

• 3. Roman Imperial Prosperity

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  Ephesus came under Roman Republic control in 129 BC following the suppression of Eumenes III's revolt. Augustus made Ephesus the capital of proconsular Asia instead of Pergamum when he became emperor in 27 BC. Strabo described it as second in importance and size only to Rome. The city entered an era of prosperity becoming both the seat of the governor and a major center of commerce. Ludwig Burchner estimated the wall enclosed an area of 1000 acres while Jerome Murphy-O'Connor used 345 hectares for inhabited land. J.W. Hanson argued population densities of 150 to 250 people per hectare give a range of 33,600 to 56,000 inhabitants. Even with lower estimates Ephesus ranked as the largest city after Sardis and Alexandria Troas. The Great Theatre held an estimated 25,000 spectators making it believed to be the largest in the ancient world. Gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage during later Roman times. The first archaeological evidence of a gladiator graveyard was found in May 2007. The Library of Celsus originally built around 105 AD held nearly 12,000 scrolls designed with an exaggerated entrance to enhance perceived size.

• 4. Christianity And Councils

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  Ephesus served as an important center for Early Christianity from the AD 50s. From AD 52 to 54 the apostle Paul lived three years working with the congregation and organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands. Paul moved his base to the school of Tyrannus after three months at the Jewish synagogue. A silversmith named Demetrios stirred up a mob against Paul saying he endangered livelihoods making silver Artemis shrines. Between 53 and 57 AD Paul wrote the letter 1 Corinthians possibly from the Paul tower near the harbor where imprisoned briefly. Later Paul wrote the Epistle to the Ephesians while in prison in Rome around 62 AD. John is said to have died of natural causes at Ephesus sometime after AD 98 during Trajan's reign becoming the only apostle who did not die as a martyr. His tomb lies thought to be located in the former Basilica of St. John at Selçuk. The Church of Mary near the harbor hosted the Third Ecumenical Council in 431 which resulted in condemnation of Nestorius. A Second Council of Ephesus held in 449 had controversial acts never approved by Catholics earning it the name Robber Council of Latrocinium.

• 5. Harbor Siltation And Decline

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  The river Cayster silted up the old harbor causing resulting marshes that brought malaria and many deaths among inhabitants. Lysimachus forced people to move from ancient settlement around temple of Artemis to present site two kilometers away when flooding occurred as last resort. The harbor today sits five kilometers inland slowly silted up despite repeated dredging during city history. Loss of harbor caused Ephesus to lose access to Aegean Sea important for trade. Sackings by Arabs first in year 654-655 by caliph Muawiyah I hastened decline further along with later attacks in 700 and 716. Excavations in 2022 indicate large parts destroyed in 614/615 by military conflict likely during Sasanian War initiating drastic population decline. The city became part of Thracesian Theme in 7th century also known as Hagios Theologos. Seljuks conquered and plundered Ephesus in 1090 though Byzantines resumed control in 1097. By 1308 Byzantines lost control of region completely abandoning it by 15th century.

• 6. Modern Archaeological Discoveries

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  The history of archaeological research stretches back to 1863 when British architect John Turtle Wood began searching for Artemision sponsored by British Museum. In 1869 he discovered pavement of temple but excavations stopped in 1874 since expected discoveries failed materialize. German archaeologist Otto Benndorf resumed work in 1895 financed by 10,000 guilder donation from Austrian Karl Mautner Ritter von Markhof. Benndorf founded Austrian Archaeological Institute in 1898 which plays leading role today. Finds exhibited notably in Ephesos Museum Vienna and Ephesus Archaeology Museum Selçuk plus British Museum. Turkey halted works October 2016 ongoing over 100 years due tensions between Austria and Turkey. May 2018 allowed Austrian archeologists resume excavations after pause. Terrace Houses called Houses of Rich include six luxury Roman residences featuring mosaics floor and frescos wall built three terraces lower end Bulbul Mountain slope oldest structure dates first century BC some used until seventh century AD. Discovery shed light family life during Roman period now covered protective roofing. Ruins designated UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015 accessible from Adnan Menderes Airport and resort town Kuşadası.