Clothing

• 1. Origins And Evolutionary History

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  Scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco. This discovery appeared in September 2021 and challenges previous estimates that ranged from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago. A study published in 2003 suggested humans were wearing clothing at least 100,000 years ago using evidence about lice. Human body lice cannot live outside of clothing and die after only a few hours without shelter. The divergence date between the body louse and its parent species has been estimated to be between 40,000 to 170,000 years before present. Recent transcriptome analyses cast doubt on whether lice provide a reliable means to date the origin of clothes since they found that body and head lice were almost genetically identical. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC found near Kostenki Russia in 1988. In 2016 researchers discovered a needle at least 50,000 years old from Denisova Cave in Siberia made by Denisovans. Dyed flax fibers dating back to 34,000 BC could have been used in clothing and were found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia. The oldest known piece of woven clothing is the Tarkhan dress which is an over 5000 year old linen garment.

• 2. Materials And Manufacturing Techniques

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  Several distinct human cultures including those residing in the Arctic Circle have historically crafted their garments exclusively from treated and adorned animal furs and skins. Numerous other societies complemented or substituted leather and skins with textiles woven knitted or twined from diverse arrays of animal and plant fibers such as wool linen cotton silk hemp and ramie. Making fabric by hand remains a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making spinning and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized with the powered loom during the Industrial Revolution. One approach involves draping the cloth where many people wore and still wear garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit like the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent. Another approach involves measuring cutting and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to the wearer's measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form-fitting clothing. If the fabric is expensive the tailor tries to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing perhaps cutting triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth and adding them elsewhere as gussets. Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants.

• 3. Social Status And Gender Norms

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  During the early modern period individuals utilized their attire as a significant method of conveying and asserting their social status. Individuals employed the utilization of high-quality fabrics and trendy designs as a means of communicating their wealth and social standing. In ancient Rome only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa or carved whale teeth. In China before establishment of the republic only the emperor could wear yellow. Sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear in some societies. Islam requires women to wear certain forms of attire usually hijab. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from the head-scarf to the burqa. In contemporary Western societies skirts dresses and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing while neckties usually are seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing but nowadays are worn by both genders. Men's clothes are often more practical that is they can function well under a wide variety of situations but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places.

• 4. Modern Fashion And Global Trade

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  According to the World Trade Organization report the value of global clothing exports in 2022 reached US$790.1 billion up 10.6% from 2021. China is the world's largest clothing exporter with a value of US$178.4 billion accounting for 22.6% of the global market share. Next are Bangladesh at US$40.8 billion Vietnam at US$39.8 billion India at US$36.1 billion and Turkey at US$29.7 billion. EU member states imported €166 billion of clothes in 2018 and 51% came from outside the EU worth €84 billion. In Vietnam clothing exports continue to be one of the leading export sectors contributing significantly to the export turnover and economic growth of the country. The value of Vietnam's clothing exports in 2022 reached US$39.8 billion up 14.2% from 2021. Of which clothing exports to the United States reached US$18.8 billion accounting for 47.3% of the market share. Exports to the EU reached US$9.8 billion accounting for 24.6% of the market share. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon as these garments are less expensive mass-produced Western clothing. By the early years of the twenty-first century western clothing styles had to some extent become international styles.

• 5. Labor Conditions And Ethical Debates

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  Although mechanization transformed most aspects of human clothing industry by the mid-twentieth century garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Often mass-produced clothing is made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops typified by long work hours lack of benefits and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions. Coalitions of NGOs designers including Katharine Hamnett American Apparel Veja Quiksilver eVocal and Edun and campaign groups such as the Clean Clothes Campaign CCC and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights have sought to improve these conditions. Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh China India Indonesia Pakistan and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement MFA was abolished. The MFA which placed quotas on textiles imports was deemed a protectionist measure. Although many countries recognize treaties such as the International Labour Organization which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty. Real fur in fashion is contentious with Copenhagen 2022 and London 2018 fashion weeks banning real fur in its runway shows following protests and government attention to the issue.

• 6. Maintenance And Environmental Impact

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  It is estimated that 80 billion to 150 billion garments are produced annually. Used unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts rags rugs bandages and many other household uses. In Western societies used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity such as through a clothing bin. It is also sold to consignment shops dress agencies flea markets and in online auctions. Globally used clothes are worth $4 billion with the U.S. as the leading exporter at $575 million. Synthetics which come primarily from petrochemicals are not renewable or biodegradable. Excess inventory of clothing is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value. A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde which could cause contact dermatitis for some people. No disclosure requirements exist and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants. In 1999 a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after six months of routine washing 7 of 27 shirts still had levels in excess of 75 ppm.