Early modern period
The year 1453 marked the fall of Constantinople, a moment that many historians cite as the starting point for the early modern period. This date sits alongside other contested markers like the start of the Renaissance and the Reformation in Germany around 1517. No single calendar day defines the beginning or end of this era, which stretches from roughly 1500 to 1800 depending on the region studied. Historian Lynn Thorndike first proposed the term "early modern" in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization to describe a distinct period broader than just the Renaissance. Before Thorndike, most scholars divided history into three periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The concept gained traction in economic history during the 1940s and 1950s before spreading to general history by the 1990s. Jerry H. Bentley noted that European national historiographies often discouraged exploring larger cross-regional pasts. Some German scholars began using the term around 1970, while Romance language traditions continued calling the era simply "the modern era." Joseph R. Fletcher argued in 1985 that Eurasian societies shared similar demographic and economic forces regardless of their specific location.
The Columbian Exchange linked the Old World with the New World, creating new global trade networks that altered human environments forever. European powers established colonies across the Americas, Africa, and Asia, leading to the Atlantic slave trade and the colonization of Indigenous peoples. Portugal sought sugarcane as a high-value export product from its coastal settlements in Brazil, importing Black African slave labor to perform grueling agricultural work. By 1511, the Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital, establishing the Sultanate of Johor by 1528 to succeed it. The Spanish founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in New Spain or the Caribbean islands. France colonized what is now Eastern Canada, founding Quebec City in 1608. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 and 1733, including Virginia and Georgia. The Thirteen Colonies rebelled against British rule through 1765, 1783 due to various factors such as belief in natural rights and opposition to monarchy. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War, Britain recognized the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.
Nicolaus Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543, marking the start of modern astronomy with his heliocentric cosmology that displaced Earth from the center of the universe. Johannes Kepler developed laws of planetary motion using precise astronomical observations by Tycho Brahe, demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles. Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica in 1687, establishing fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries. Andreas Vesalius published De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem in 1543, revolutionizing the understanding of human anatomy and correcting errors in Galen's works. William Harvey advanced knowledge of the circulatory system with De Motu Cordis in 1628. Robert Boyle discovered Boyle's law of gases in his 1661 book The Sceptical Chymist. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made early observations of microorganisms in the 1670s using a microscope. Carl Linnaeus published Systema Naturae in 1735, introducing hierarchical classification of organisms. Nicolas Steno proposed the law of superposition in 1669, establishing early modern geology.
Martin Luther challenged the Church with his Ninety-five Theses in Germany, marking the start of the Reformation at the University of Wittenberg where he became a professor. The Diet of Worms declared Luther a heretic in 1521, but Emperor Charles V allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the Edict of Worms. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, allowing rulers to determine their state's religion. The Counter-Reformation began in 1545 with the Council of Trent in response to Protestant challenges. New religious orders such as the Capuchins, Ursulines, and Jesuits strengthened rural parishes and improved popular piety. The Spanish Inquisition operated from 1478 to 1834, prosecuting crimes like sorcery, blasphemy, and witchcraft. The Portuguese Inquisition ran from 1536 to 1821, while the Roman Inquisition covered most of Italy from 1542 until circa 1860. The Thirty Years' War ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, which marked the birth of modern national sovereignty.
Ivan IV was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia in 1547, transforming the country into a multiethnic, multiconfessional, and transcontinental state by annexing three Tatar khanates. The Grand Duke nearly doubled Russian territory during his long reign, adding Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities resembling pirates and pioneers who settled areas stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula. The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress and became part of constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire until 1806. The Treaty of Utrecht established after peace treaties signed in Utrecht concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. Louis XIV of France met representatives of Queen Anne of Great Britain and Philip V of Spain at these negotiations. The French power figures Mazarin, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Turenne, and Vauban featured prominently in political and military life during this period. Charles the Bold, last Valois Duke of Burgundy, died in 1477 leaving an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter Mary as heir.
The Golden Age of Piracy spanned from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century, characterized by Anglo-French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies. The Pirate Round involved voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea. Unemployed sailors and privateers turned to piracy in the Caribbean, American eastern seaboard, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean following the War of the Spanish Succession. Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations, which has been interpreted as the foundation of classical economics. Max Weber wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, arguing Calvinist theology was instrumental to capitalism's rise. The Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch Empires in the 16th century, bringing massive amounts of silver into China. By the mid-18th century, India became a major proto-industrializing region under the Mughal Empire, which had the world's largest economy worth 25% of global GDP. The Great Divergence saw Western Europe surpass China in technology and per capita wealth during this period.
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Common questions
When did the early modern period begin and end?
The early modern period stretches from roughly 1500 to 1800 depending on the region studied. The year 1453 marked the fall of Constantinople, a moment that many historians cite as the starting point for the era.
Who first proposed the term early modern in historical studies?
Historian Lynn Thorndike first proposed the term early modern in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization. The concept gained traction in economic history during the 1940s and 1950s before spreading to general history by the 1990s.
What major scientific discoveries occurred during the early modern period?
Nicolaus Copernicus published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543, marking the start of modern astronomy with his heliocentric cosmology. Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica in 1687, establishing fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries.
How did the Reformation change European religious politics?
Martin Luther challenged the Church with his Ninety-five Theses in Germany, marking the start of the Reformation at the University of Wittenberg where he became a professor. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 established the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, allowing rulers to determine their state's religion.
When was Ivan IV officially crowned Tsar of Russia?
Ivan IV was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia in 1547, transforming the country into a multiethnic, multiconfessional, and transcontinental state. He nearly doubled Russian territory during his long reign, adding Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga River and Sibirean Khanate in South Western Siberia.